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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


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AMERICAN  VINES 

(RESISTANT  STOCK) 

THEIR    ADAPTATION,  CULTURE,  GRAFTING 
AND  PROPAGATION 

BY 

P.  VIALA 

Inspector-General  of  Viticulture,  Professor  of  Viticulture  (National  Agronomic 
Institute,  Paris) 

AND 

L.  RAVAZ 

Professor  of  Viticulture,  National  School  of  Agriculture  (Montpellier) 


COMPLETE  TRANSLATION  OF  THE 
SECOND  EDITION 

BY 

RAYMOND   DUBOIS,   B.  Sc.,  F.R.C.  S. 

Ingenieur  Agricole,  Viticulturist  to  the  Government  of  Cape  Colony 
AND 

EDMUND   H.  TWIGHT  B.  Sc. 

Ingenieur  Agricole,  Assistant  Professor  of  Viticulture  and  Enology,  College  of 
Agriculture,  University  of  California,  Berkeley,  Cal.,  U.  S.  A. 


1903. 


PRESS  OF  FREYGANG-LEARY  Co.,  113-119  DAVIS  ST.,  SAN  FRANCISCO. 


O-C 


PREFACE  TO  CALIFORNIA    EDITION 

(TRANSLATION.) 


The  translation  of  the  book  which  Messrs.  Raymond  Dubois 
and  Edmund  H.  Twight  are  now  presenting  to  California  viti- 
culturists  is  a  summary  of  the  efforts  accomplished  by  the 
viticulturists  of  France  in  the  struggle  against  phylloxera, 
and  of  the  new  knowledge  they  have  definitely  gained  for  the 
reconstitution  of  vineyards.  This  knowledge  has  been  revised 
to  date  for  the  present  translation,  and  all  new  facts  which 
actually  permit  to  direct  the  reconstitution  of  vineyards  are 
brought  together  in  this  California  translation. 

The  viticulturists  of  California  are  practically  working 
under  the  same  conditions  as  the  viticulturists  of  the  South  of 
France,  therefore  the  facts  acquired  in  that  region  should  be 
applied  in  their  vineyards.  These  facts  are  simple,  and 
consist,  above  all,  in  having  recourse  to  the  American  vines 
most  resistant  to  phylloxera,  that  is  to  say,  in  using  pure 
species  (V.  Riparia,  V.  Rupestris,  V.  Berlandieri),  or  hybrids 
of  these  species  (V.  Riparia  X  V.  Rupestris,  V.  Rupestris 
X  V.  Berlandieri,  and  V.  Riparia  X  V.  Berlandieri).  The 
essential  condition  is  to  select  different  graft-bearers,  accord- 
ing to  the  diverse  classes  of  soils,  and  we  trust  that  this  book 
will  assist  California  viticulturists  in  that  direction. 

The  course  to  be  followed  in  the  struggle  against  phylloxera 
is  nowadays  definitely  established.  The  immense  efforts 
accomplished  by  our  French  viticulturists  have  vanquished 
an  unprecedented  crisis;  their  work,  crowned  with  success, 
should  benefit  the  viticulturists  of  the  whole  world.  The 
most  definite  and  general  conclusion  derived  from  this  strug- 
gle is  the  superiority  of  reconstitution  with  American  vines 
resisting  the  attacks  of  the  insects.  France  possessed,  before 


4     « 


0  PREFACE 

the  phylloxera  invasion,  over  5,000,000  acres  of  vines;  more 
than  three-fourths  of  that  area  have  been  destroyed  by 
phylloxera.  By  1899,  2,500,000  acres  were  reconstituted 
with  American  vines.  The  production  of  wine,  which  had 
fallen  to  638,000,000  gallons,  exceeded,  in  1900,  1,430,000,000 
gallons;  further,  the  average  production  was  1,100,000,000 
gallons  before  the  appearance  of  phylloxera.  The  Depart- 
ment of  the  Herault,  in  which  450,000  acres  were  formerly 
under  vines,  had,  by  1900,  reconstituted  445,435  acres  with 
American  vines. 

All  other  processes  or  methods  of  combating  phylloxera 
can  only  be  of  transitory  value,  and  only  prepare,  more  or 
less  progressively,  the  way  for  eventual  reconstitution  with 
American  vines.  The  following  comparative  figures  estab- 
lish this  beyond  a  doubt: — 

Bisulphide  of  carbon  was  applied  in  France  in  1890  to 
155,595  acres;  in  1900,  it  was  only  applied  to  90,500  acres, 
American  vines,  on  the  contrary,  show  the  following  pro- 
gressive increase: — 

1880 16,102  acres. 

1885 188,230  acres. 

1890 1,090,045  acres. 

1900 '.  .  2,404,895  acres. 

The  use  of  American  vines  necessitates,  however,  greater 
supplementary  care  in  culture;  but  these  difficulties  (selection 
of  graft-bearers  for  different  classes  of  soils  and  grafting) 
are  insignificant  for  those  who  possess  a  sound  knowledge  of 
adaptation.  The  main  object  of  this  translation  is  to  impart 
that  knowledge,  and  we  trust  that  the  viticulturists  of  Cali- 
fornia will  profit  by  the  work  which  the  translators  have  so 
willingly  performed. 

P.  VIALA, 

Inspector-General  of  Viticulture. 
PARIS,  December,  1902. 


TRANSLATOR'S    INTRODUCTION. 


As  the  area  of  phylloxera-attacked  vineyards  in  California 
increases  rapidly  every  year,  and  the  insect  has  now  obtained 
a  firm  footing  in  our  most  important  viticultural  centers, 
we  may  safely  assume,  in  the  light  of  the  history  of  the  rapid 
spread  of  phylloxera  in  European  vine-growing  countries, 
that  at  no  distant  date  every  vineyard  in  California  will  be 
devastated  by  this  terrible  insect. 

Already  we  have  seen  the  destruction  it  caused  in  the 
Napa,  Sonoma,  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  Valleys,  reach- 
ing thousands  of  acres  in  extent,  and  it  will  spread  slowly 
but  surely  to  Southern  California.  The  signal  and  world- 
wide failure  of  the  extinction  method  to  check  the  progress 
of  the  phylloxera  should  be  clearly  recognized  by  all  Califor- 
nian  vine  growers. 

In  looking  over  many  serial  writings  published  some  twenty 
years  ago,  during  the  early  period  of  phylloxera  history  in 
France,  and  bearing  in  mind  that  at  present  almost  the  whole 
of  the  French  vineyards  are  phylloxera  ted  and  reconstituted, 
nothing  now  appears  more  ludicrous  than  the  constantly 
reiterated  advice  tendered  by  authorities  in  vine  districts  free 
from  the  insect  to  unfortunate  growers  in  attacked  districts 
to  persevere  in  their  attempts  at  "total  extinction"  and  not  to 
plant  American  vines  "because  the  phylloxera  and  other  dis- 
eases lived  on  them."  Authorities  in  European  States  free 
from  phylloxera  were  especially  loud  in  their  praises  of  the 
extinction  method,  but  undoubtedly  their  motives  in  recom- 
mending total  extinction  were  not  purely  disinterested.  Mill- 
ardet  one  of  the  early  advocates  of  reconstitution,  quaintly 
remarked  that  the  opponents  of  the  American  grafting  stock 


8  INTRODUCTION. 

had  really  adduced  the  strongest  argument  in  their  favor, 
namely,  the  fact  that  the  phylloxera  lived  on  them  without 
causing  injury. 

The  indisputable  fact  should  be  clearly  grasped  that 
phylloxera  comes  to  stay,  that  the  extinction  method 
has  proved  an  utter  failure  in  Europe,  no  matter  how 
thoroughly  and  expensively  carried  out,  as  in  France, 
Switzerland,  Germany,  Austro- Hungary,  Roumania,  Italy, 
Spain,  Bulgaria,  Portugal,  Russia,  Servia. 

In  all  of  these  countries  without  exception,  phylloxera  has 
spread  and  viticulturists  bave  been  finally  compelled  to 
reconstitute  their  vineyards  with  phylloxera-resistant 
American  vines. 

The  vine  growers  of  California  have  taken  hold  of  that 
question  for  a  good  many  years,  and  helped  by  the  Agricul- 
tural Experiment  Station  of  the  University  of  California  and 
also  by  the  Viticultural  Commission  have  been  able  to  re- 
establish a  great  many  of  their  vineyards.  There  seems 
nevertheless  to  be  a  need  for  more  knowledge  on  the  subject, 
a  thorough  understanding  of  these  resistant  vines.  Their 
properties,  grafting  affinity  with  European  stock,  degree  of 
resistance,  adaptation  to  soils,  becomes  a  matter  of  primary 
necessity  as  the  first  step  towards  permanent  reconstitution 
on  a  phylloxera-resistant  basis. 

The  difficult  problems  which  were  necessarily  connected 
with  the  early  culture  of  American  resistant  stock  have  been 
solved  in  the  most  practical  manner  in  Europe ;  the  culture  of 
resistant  stock  no  longer  presents  any  trouble  to  the  intel- 
ligent grower,  and  as  a  result,  during  the  last  twenty  years  the 
areas  successfully  reconstituted  total  some  millions  of  acres, 
bearing  heavier  ^nd  finer  crops  than  before  the  advent  of 
the  phylloxera. 

All  the  best  knowledge  and  information  on  the  culture  of 
American  vines^has  been  systematically  gathered  by  Profes- 
sors Viala  and  kRavaz  in  their  world-renowned  work,  "Les 


INTRODUCTION.  9 

Vignes  Americaines :  Adaptation,  Culture,  Greffage,  Pep- 
inieres."  We  therefore  deemed  it  advisable  to  translate  the 
second  edition  of  their  book,  which  appeared  in  1896. 

Professor  Viala  authorized  the  translation,  and  with  great 
kindness  undertook  the  laborious  revision  of  the  whole  of  the 
proof  sheets,  thus  bringing  the  work  to  date  1902. 

We  trust  Californian  Viticulturists  will  thoroughly  appre- 
ciate Professor  Viala's  liberal-minded  labours  on  their  behalf, 
and  benefit  by  the  work  he  so  willingly  undertook  for  their 
guidance  during  the  transition  period — through  which  all 
vine-growing  countries  seem  compelled  to  pass — of  re-estab- 
lishing on  a  phylloxera-resistant  basis. 

EDMUND  H.  TWIGHT,  RAYMOND  DUBOIS, 

Berkeley,  Jan.,  1903.  Cape  Town,  Jan.,  1903. 

U.  S.  A. 


AMERICAN    VINES 


PART   I. 
ADAPTATION. 


L— INTRODUCTION. 

When  the  American  vines  were  first  cultivated  in  France 
on  a  large  scale,  it  was  soon  apparent  that  they  were  not 
thriving  equally  well  in  all  soils.  Such  varieties  as  were 
thriving  well  in  one  soil  grew  indifferently  in  another; 
and,  in  the  same  soil,  they  were  not  all  growing  in  the  same 
manner. 

Evidently,  it  would  have  been  easy  to  foresee  that  this 
would  be  the  case  if  beforehand,  care  had  been  taken  to 
study  the  nature  of  the  soils  in  which  they  were  living  in 
America.  But,  in  the  haste  in  which  new  vineyards  were 
started,  the  mistake  was  made  of  thinking  that  American 
vines  would  grow  in  all  kinds  of  soils  just  as  the  European 
(Vitis  Vintferd)  did. 

All  the  European  vines  belong  to  one  species — the  V. 
Vinifera.  Their  pecularities  and  properties  extend,  with 
only  slight  differences,  to  all  the  varieties  cultivated. 

With  the  American  vines  we  have  to  deal  with  species 
not  only  differing  from  the  V.  Vinifera,  but  also  very 
different  from  one  another.  Consequently,  their  numerous 
varieties,  which  had  adapted  themselves  to  special  con- 
ditons,  gave  very  different  results  when  planted  in  similar 
conditions. 

But  this  was  not  taken  into  account.  Hence,  widely- 
spread  failures  were  recorded;  and  extensive  vineyards 
had  to  be  uprooted  after  a  few  years  growth.  It  wab 
only  then  seen  that  it  was  necessary  to  study  beforehand  each 
American  variety  to  discover  its  qualities  and  deficiencies, 
and  especially  its  power  of  adaptation  to  different  soils. 


12  AMERICAN  VINES. 

Many  of  these  failures  were  attributed  to  the  action  of 
the  phylloxera.  No  doubt  many  of  the  American  varie- 
ties cultivated  had  only  a  slight  degree  of  resistance; 
but,  with  the  greater  number,  the  failures  (and  this  has 
since  been  proved)  were  due  only  to  their  poor  adaptation 
to  the  soil.  Without  doubt,  the  first  quality  required 
for  a  grafting  stock,  or  even  direct  producer,  is  a  high 
degree  of  resistance  to  phylloxera;  this  is  a  guarantee  to 
its  long  duration  in  suitable  soils.  To  make  use  of 
varities  of  small  or  even  medium  resistance  is  to  court 
certain  failure.  However,  it  is  none  the  less  true  that  in 
some  cases  the  phylloxera  resistance  is  helped  by  growth 
in  a  thoroughly  suitable  soil. 

It  would  be  easy  to  cite  numerous  examples  to  prove 
this  assertion.  One  of  the  clearest  cases  is  offered  by  the 
old  collections  at  the  School  of  Agriculture,  Montpellier.  In 
a  bad  place,  closely  planted  side  by  side,  with  interlacing 
roots,  are  Rupestris,  Solonis,  Cornucopia,  and  a  number  of 
other  varieties.  The  Rupestris  has  only  a  few  small 
nodosities  at  the  extremity  of  the  rootlets  and  no  tuber- 
osities,  or  very  few,  and  its  resistance  may  be  expressed  as 
1 8 — the  maximum,  or  absolute  indemnity,  being  20.  The 
Solonis,  besides  a  great  number  of  nodosities,  bears,  on  the 
roots  or  secondary  structures  of  the  year  or  older,  a  few 
small  hardly  prominent  tuberosities,  the  alteration  of  which 
rarely  reaches  the  main  roots;  its  resistance  is  expressed 
fairly  accurately  as  15  The  roots  of  the  Cornucopia  are, 
on  the  contrary,  covered  with  very  large  nodosities  and 
very  prominent  tuberosities]  and  its  resistance  may  be 
given  as  4. 

These  three  varieties  have  been  planted  for  twenty-one 
years.  If  the  phylloxera  had  been  the  only  factor  concerned 
in  the  development  of  their  exterior  vegetation,  it  would  be 
in  the  proportion  of  18,  15,  4.  The  results  are  just  the 
contrary.  The  Rupestris,  on  which  the  phylloxera  has 
hardly  any  effect,  is  stunted,  nearly  dying,  and  its  exterior 
vegetation  is  equal  to  2,  the  maximum  being  taken  as  20. 
The  Solonis,  although  but  slightly  affected  by  the  phylloxera, 
is  also  stunted,  though  not  so  badly  as  the  preceding;  its 
development  may  be  expressed  as  4.  The  Cornucopia,  on 
the  contrary,  although  much  attacked  by  phylloxera,  has 
a  great  vigour  and  vegetation,  that  may  be  exactly  ex- 
pressed as  1 6.  Thus  the  phylloxera  had.  after  all,  but 
little  effect. 


ADAPTATION.  13 

The  same  anomalous  facts  apply  to  a  large  number  of 
varieties,  such  as  the  Othello,  Autuchon,  and  Canada, 
which,  in  spite  of  the  phylloxera,  often  grow  better  in  a  very 
calcareous  soil  than  the  Riparia,  Rupestris,  etc. 

This  example  shows  how  great  is  the  influence  of  the  soil 
on  the  vegetation  of  American  vines.  Any  one  may  easily 
observe  the  same  facts. 

The  attention  of  viticulturists  was  first  called  to  the  varia- 
tion of  the  growth  of  American  vines  by  Louis  Vialla,  in 
1878,  and  a  little  later  by  M.  Despetis. 

The  subject  was  re-studied  by  B.  Chauzit  in  1880;  by  Foex, 
Millardet,  Desjardins,  Audoynaud.  in  1881;  A.  Verneuil.  in 
1882;  and  by  E.  Petit  and  a  number  of  other  viticulturists. 
They  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  all  American  phylloxera- 
resistant  vines  grew  well  in  clay-siliceous  or  siliceous-clay 
soils,  and  especially  in  siliceous  soils,  as  also  in  pebbly  red  and 
fertile,  but  decayed  in  certain  white  soils.  These  observed 
facts  have  been  explained  in  many  different  ways.  We  will 
speak  of  them  later  on. 

Nowadays  we  have  accurate  ideas  as  to  the  value  of 
the  American  varieties  (now  very  numerous)  introduced 
into  France.  Most  of  them  have  been  relegated  to  collections 
or  discarded.  Quite  a  small  number  have  been  adopted  in 
practice. 

These  have  been  cultivated  for  over  25  years,  and  in 
France  now  occupy  an  area  of  over  2,500,000  acres 
(2,430,000  acres  in  1899),  distributed  over  more  than  60 
departements ,  in  the  most  diverse  soils  and  climates,  and  the 
total  area  under  American  vines  in  France  yielded  in  1899 
and  1900  a  quantity  of  wine  equal  to  that  obtained  before 
the  appearance  of  phylloxera.  We  now  possess  all  the 
information  needed  to  definitely  solve  the  question  of  the 
adaptation  of  American  vines  to  the  soil. 

This  question  has  pre-occupied  many  viticulturists:  Being 
given  a  soil,  which  American  variety  is  to  be  cultivated  in 
order  to  obtain  the  best  results'?  The  present  work  has  for 
its  object  the  determination  of  the  elements  affording  a  solu- 
tion to  that  problem,  to  state  exactly  the  r61e  of  each  on  the 
growth  of  each  American  variety,  whether  acting  separately 
or  combined,  and  through  it  to  give  viticulturists  the  means 
to  choose  precisely  the  most  suitable  variety. 

In  clay-siliceous  or  siliceous-clay  soils,  or  those  only  con- 
taining a  small  quantity  of  limestone,  all  American  vines 


F4  AMERICAN  VINES. 

resistant  to  phylloxera  can  be  successfully  cultivated.  How- 
ever, they  show  in  their  growth,  fructification,  etc.,  certain 
differences  which  must  be  taken  into  account.  Not  that  in 
soils  of  this  nature  they  would  be  a  complete  failure,  but, 
as  the  creation  of  a  vineyard  actually  necessitates  a  large 
expenditure,  it  is  important  to  know  the  character  and  apti- 
tude of  each,  so  as  to  cultivate  only  those  giving  the  best 
results. 

In  soils  where  the  proportion  of  limestone  is  very  high  it 
is  different.  There  most  of  the  American  vines,  as  also 
the  varieties  of  V.  Vini^era,  do  not  grow  so  well.  They 
grow  badly,  turn  yellow,  become  stunted,  and  sometimes  die. 
Others  accommodate  themselves  better  to  this  class  of  soil. 
From  these  facts,  proved  by  observation,  it  must  be  admitted 
that  for  each  class  of  soil  there  is  an  American  vine  superior 
to  others.  It  must  not  be  thought  that  the  most  vigorous 
and  resistant  vines  should  also  be  the  best  for  all  soils.  The 
V.  Berlandieri,  for  example,  is  the  best  grafting  stock  for 
soils  rich  in  limestone.  In  soils  where  there  is  not  much 
limestone  it  grows  even  better,  but  there  it  is  inferior  to  the 
V.  Rupestris  and  a  few  other  varieties,  which  do  not  grow  at 
all  in  calcareous  soils. 

It  is  undoubtedly  the  soil  which  acts  on  each  American 
vine,  and  either  retards  or  favours  its  development.  Hence, 
we  will  need  to  examine: — 

i  st.  The  influence  of  the  soil  on  the  growth  of  American 
vines  in  general.  And  as  several  elements  (climate,  humidity, 
dryness,  grafting,  phylloxera,  general  cultural  operations,  etc.; 
can  modify,  increase,  or  diminish  its  effect,  we  will  search 
which  way  the  modifications  will  be  produced  according  to 
the  case. 

2nd.  The  aptitudes,  properties,  or  exigencies  of  each  species 
or  variety  of  Ameircan  vine,  its  resistance  to  phylloxera,  the 
manner  in  which  it  behaves  in  various  soils,  its  fertility  and 
forwardness  in  ripening  its  fruit,  whether  it  should  be  grafted 
or  not,  its  affinity  with  the  French  vines,  and  those  it  can 
bear  as  grafts,  the  means  of  multiplying  it,  etc.  And  from 
this  double  examination  we  will  then  deduce  results,  which 
will  probably  have  some  importance  in  practical  work. 


ADAPTATION.  15 


II.— INFLUENCE    OF   THE    SOIL. 


A. — SOILS  SLIGHTLY  OR  NON-CALCAREOUS. 

(a)  Role    of    sand    and    day. — In      the      case    of     clay- 
siliceous   or   siliceous-clay  ground,  we  have  only  to  take  into 
account  its  compactness,  degree  of  humidity,  and  fertility. 
Besides  that,  what  role  should  be  attributed  to  the  sand  and 
clay?     Other  things  being  equal,  is  it  better  for  the  sand  to 
be  in  greater  proportion  than  the  clay,  or  vice  versa"?     We  do 
not  know.     But  it  does  not  appear  that  this  point  is  of  much 
importance.     Chemically,  these  two  elements  have  not  much 
difference  in  their  action  on    the  growth  of  the  vine.     Their 
role  is  rather  physical.     They  modify  the  nature  of  the  soil, 
and,  according  as  one  or  the  other  predominates,  the  ground 
is  more  or  less  humid,  or  more  or  less  compact. 

Siliceous  sands  formed  of  fine  particles,  mixed  with  a 
smaller  quantity  than  2  per  cent,  of  cement,  constitute  light 
soils.  European  vines  grow  well  in  them,  and,  without 
attaining  great  dimensions,  have  a  normal  development. 
It  is  not  so  with  American  vines  Some  of  them,  such  as 
Lenoir,  Herbemont,  Vialla,  Rupestris  du  Lot,  etc.,  have  a 
satisfactory  growth.  The  Riparia  and  a  few  others  do  not 
suit  these  soils,  and  are  anything  but  vigorous  when  planted 
in  them.  , 

(b)  Compactness    (Stiffness). — The    compactness    of    the 
soil  is  due  to  an  excess  of  clay,  or  an  excess  of  very  fine 
siliceous  sand.     In  the  latter  case,  when  the  amount  of  clay 
is  less  than  5  or  6  per  cent.,  the  soils  are  excessively  hard 
and  compact  after  a  drought,  the  roots  penetrate  them  with 
difficulty,  and  the  vines  do  not  grow  well.     An  excess  of  clay 
seems  to  be  less  objectionable. 

The  compactness  of  the  soil  has  a  manifest  influence.  It 
is  an  obstacle  to  a  good  growth  of  the  vine,  which,  like  all 
plants,  requires  a  friable,  light,  and  warm  soil.  The  more 
these  conditions  are  satisfied  the  more  vigorous  its  growth. 
It  grows,  however,  in  compact  soils,  but  its  vigour  is  less, 
and  likely  its  life  also.  American  vines  are  affected  in  a 
similar  manner  to  European  varieties,  but  some  of  them  are 
not  suited  by  soils  of  this  nature.  These  ar  Riparia,  most 


l6  AMERICAN  VINES. 

of  the  Rupestris,  etc  ,  while  Lenoir,  Herbemont,  Vialla,  etc., 
accommodate  themselves  much  better.  We  will  examine 
later  on  all  these  varieties  from  this  point  of  view,  but  will 
now  give  the  reason  for  those  differences.  As  it  is  not 
sufficient  to  only  observe  these  facts,  we  must  search  for  the 
causes  and  conditions  producing  them.  This  permits  us  to 
generalize,  and  also,  frequently,  to  deduct  results  of  the 
greatest  importance. 

Cazeaux-Cazalt,  who  made  a  complete  study  of  the 
question  of  adaptation  to  soil,  attributes  the  differences 
of  vegetation  shown  by  American  vines  in  compact  soils  to 
their  root  structure. 

The  Riparia,  most  of  the  Rupestris,  etc.,  have  a  poor  root 
system.  The  roots  are  thin  and  very  hard,  much  ramified, 
and  ending  in  abundant  very  fine  rootlets.  The  Lenoir, 
Vialla,  Herbemont,  Cunningham,  Cinerea,  York-Madeira, 
etc.,  have  on  the  contrary,  much  stronger  roots  and  less 
slender  rootlets.  The  European  vine,  which  grows  well 
everywhere,  has  also  very  strong  roots. 

Why  is  it  that  vines  with  large  roots  adapt  themselves  to 
compact  soils  better  than  others?  It  is  difficult  to  give  a 
satisfactory  explanation.  Perhaps  it  is  merely  because  strong 
roots  have  a  penetrating  force  that  is  deficient  in  slender 
roots. 

Whatever  the  reason  is,  the  fact  is  constant,  and  must  be 
taken  into  account.  It  demonstrates  that  American  vines, 
either  pure  or  crossed,  having  a  powerful  root  system,  also 
Franco-American  hybrids,  which  have,  like  their  French 
stock,  strong  roots,  ought  to  develop  vigorously  in  compact 
soils.  Experiments  which  have  continued  for  several  years 
prove  this  very  clearly. 

(c)  Humidity  (Moisture}. — Humidity  has  equally  an  in- 
fluence on  the  growth  of  the  vine,  although  it  is  not  quite 
so  important  as  was  formerly  thought.  •  An  exaggerated 
humidity  of  the  soil  favours  the  development  of  cryptogamic 
diseases,  non-setting,  etc.,  and,  besides  that  action,  consider- 
ably checks  the  spreading  of  the  root  system. 

Vines  growing  in  very  damp  soil  often  have  very  large 
exterior  growth,  but  the  roots,  in  proportion  to  the  aerial 
parts,  are  always  weak.  This  does  not  apply  only  to  the 
vine,  but  is  true  in  the  case  of  nearly  all  plants.  Up  to  a 
certain  point,  the  drier  the  soil  the  larger  the  root  system, 
because  in  those  soils  it  is  very  likely  necessary  for  them  to 


ADAPTATION.  17 

develop  powerful  roots  in  order  to  search  for  the  water  they 
require.  In  damp  soils,  where  moisture  is  plentiful,  a  small 
number  of  weak  roots  suffice  to  furnish  the  water  necessary 
for  the  life  of  the  plant. 

Excess  of  water  is  undoubtedly  an  obstacle  to  the  success 
of  vineyards.  In  damp  soils  vines  do  not  develop  their 
roots,  although  the  branches  grow  well,  and  when  a  sudden 
intense  drought  occurs  they  are  not  in  a  position  to  absorb 
the  necessary  water.  They  wither  and  die. 

The  humidity  of  the  soil  may,  in  some  cases,  indirectly 
favour  the  development  of  American  or  European  vines. 
We  know  for  a  fact  that  it  is  a  serious  obstacle  to  the 
multiplication  of  phylloxera,  as  proved  by  the  efficacy  of 
artificial  submersions.  The  humidity  of  the  soil,  when  in 
excess,  does  not  act  in  any  other  manner.  It  is  a  natural 
submersion  It  follows,  under  these  conditions,  that  the 
resistance  of  American  vines  subject  to  phylloxera  is 
increased.  Certain  direct  producers,  such  as  Othello, 
Canada,  Brandt,  Autuchon,  etc.,  little  resistant,  have  a 
longer  life  in  damp  soils.  It  is  also  the  prolonged  humidity 
during  the  last  few  years  that  has  allowed  the  dying  French 
vines  to  slightly  regain  their  vigour  in  the  compact  clay  soils 
which  retained  the  water,  and  also  in  sandy  soils.  It  is  this 
also  which  has  retarded  the  progress  of  the  phylloxera,  and 
rendered  in  many  cases  the  insecticide  treatments  more  effi- 
cacious, so  that  a  part  of  their  action,  perhaps  the  largest, 
was  derived  from  it.  It  is  to  this  finally  that  must  be 
attributed  the  revival  of  old  vines  badly  affected  by  the 
phylloxera,  and  not  to  a  particular  system  of  pruning. 

Humidity  often  acts  in  concert  with  compactness.  It  is 
the  same  with  regard  to  the  coldness  of  the  soil,  which  is 
mostly  the  consequence  of  compactness  and  excessive 
humidity.  In  spring  it  delays  the  development  of  the  roots 
and  also  checks  the  nutrition  of  the  plants.  All  vines  are 
not  equally  affected.  Early  kinds  accommodate  themselves 
better  than  late  sorts. 

(d)  Fertility. — The  fertility  of  the  soil  is  a  very  powerful 
adjunct  to  the  growth  of  the  vine.  The  more  fertile  the 
soil,  the  larger  its  development.  However,  great  fertility  is 
not  equally  necessary  to  all  vines.  They  have  not  from  this 
point  of  view  the  same  exigencies.  The  V.  Rupestris  is, 
perhaps  best  adapted  to  poor  soils.  It  attains  considerable 
dimensions,  and  carries  very  fine  grafts,  when  other  varieties 


l8  AMERICAN  VINES. 

do  not  grow  under  the  same  conditions.  In  America  it  grows 
in  the  beds  of  dry  ravines,  in  the  midst  of  stones  mixed  with 
very  little  organic  soil.  The  Riparia  is  more  particular. 
The  Vialla,  Lenoir,  Herbemont,  and  especially  V.  Monticola, 
grow  fairly  well  in  poor  soil. 

Such  are  the  principal  conditions  which  influence  the 
growth  of  the  vine  in  slightly  or  non-calcareous  soils.  These 
conditions  may  be  easily  modified.  Lightness,  and  conse- 
quently permeability  of  the  soil,  are  necessary  to  a  good 
growth  of  the  vine;  deep  trenching,  green  manure,  long 
manure  (stable  refuse  with  much  straw),  attentuate  con- 
siderably the  compactness  of  soil.  Drainage  and  trans- 
ference also  diminish  the  excess  of  water  and  coldness  in 
damp  soils.  On  the  contrary,  in  too  dry  soils  irrigation  when 
possible,  with  frequent  ploughing,  will  maintain  sufficient 
moisture.  Finally,  strong  manuring  will  supply  any  de- 
ficiency in  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

A  good  growth  of  all  American  vines  can  be  assured  after 
this  in  all  classes  of  soils,  but  it  is  none  the  less  necessary 
to  take  their  preferences  into  account. 


B. — CALCAREOUS  SOILS. 
Chlorosis 

In  calcareous  soils,  as  already  shown,  both  American  and 
European  vines,  but  the  latter  to  a  less  extent,  often  become 
yellow.  Sometimes  the  yellow  colour  is  only  slightly  marked 
and  transitory;  again,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  more  accentuated 
and  causes  the  death  of  the  vine.  In  most  cases  it  is  a 
characteristic  symptom  of  the  non-adaptation  of  the  vine  to 
such  soils. 

(a)  Characteristic  Symptoms  of  Chlorosis. — The  intensity 
of  the  colour  of  leaves  on  vines  attacked  by  chlorosis  at 
first  diminishes  over  the  whole  parenchyma,  or  on  portions  of 
it  only.  They  then  turn  yellowish -green,  and  finally  yellow. 
The  leaf  loses  almost  all  colour,  and  from  bright  yellow  turns 
to  whitish.  The  tissue  becomes  brownish  on  the  margin  of 
the  limb,  and  this  modification  gradually  invades  the  whole 
parenchyma,  following  the  ribs.  Finally  the  whole  leaf 
dries  up  The  young  shoots  become  yellow  in  the  same 


ADAPTATION.  19 

way,  and  often  when  the  chlorosis  is  very  intense  the 
extremities  also  dry  and  fall  off. 

Although  being  very  yellow,  the  shoots  continue  to  in- 
crease, but  more  slowly,  and  produce  new  leaves,  but,  as  the 
green  surfaces  which  alone  elaborate  the  matters  necessary 
to  the  nutrition  of  the  various  organs  of  the  plant  are 
altered,  the  new  leaves  always  remain  small  and  yellow. 
Numerous  small  shoots,  always  very  short  and  slender,  with 
rudimentary  leaves,  spring  from  the  axillary  buds,  and  the 
vine  then  presents  a  bushy  and  stunted  growth.  This  form 
of  chlorosis  is  c  lied  cottis  * 

If  the  disease  takes  place  before  the  vine  blossoms  (and  it 
is  almost  always  the  case),  it  brings  about  non-setting  of  the 
flowers,  and  retards  the  maturation  of  the  berry,  which 
remains  small,  miller  ande,  yellowish  with  a  few  brown 
spots,  and  later  on  dries  off. 

The  roots  have  a  normal  or  weak  development;  they  do 
not  show  any  outside  alteration ;  nothing  indicates  that  they 
belong  to  a  diseased  vine,  and  a  section  does  not  show  any 
internal  lesion  of  the  tissue.  However,  they  are  softer  and 
more  flexible  than  the  roots  of  healthy  vines,  bending  like 
india  rubber,  and  are  less  lignified.  They  contain  little  or  no 
reserve  matters,  except  perhaps  the  larger  ones,  no  reserve 
of  starch  in  the  cells  after  the  wood  has  become  lignified. 
The  contents  of  the  regions  in  a  state  of  active  life  (genera- 
tive layer,  etc.)  are  very  deficient  in  portoplasm.  The  fibro- 
vascular  bundles  and  cells  of  the  liber  are  almost  empty — 
in  a  word,  there  is  a  lack  of  nitrogenous  matters  and  car- 
bohydrates. In  the  branches  there  is  an  absence  of  the 
same  matters  as  well  as  in  the  leaves  and  all  the  herbaceous 
organs. 

In  the  leaves,  not  only  has  the  chlorophyll  disappeared, 
but  also  its  sub-stratum, the  chlorophyll  corpuscles.  However, 
in  the  chlorotic  branches  the  chlorophyll  does  not  disappear 
as  early  as  in  the  case  of  the  leaves;  there  is  still  some 


*  The  disease  which  Dr.  J.  Guyot  described  in  the  Charentes  under  the 
name  of  cottis,  is  totally  unknown  there.  The  word  cotti  is  an  adjective,  not  a 
noun.  One  says  a  cotti  fruit,  a  cotti  branch,  to  designate  a  fruit  or  branch 
altered  by  any  cause  (insect  larva,  bruise,  etc.),  or  bearing  lesions  similar  to 
those  resulting  from  a  blow.  A  branch  attacked  by  anthracnosis  is  cotti  at  the 
point  where  the  canker  shows,  and  by  extension  a  plant  is  cotti  when  it  presents 
any  deformation.  The  actual  cottis  has  been  characterized  in  the  South  of 
Prance;  it  is  known  in  the  Charentes  since  the  American  vines  have  been  cul- 
tivated there.  The  name  is  an  adjective  changed  into  a  noun  by  Dr.  Guyot 
and  the  vine-growers  of  the  South. 


20  AMERICAN  VINES. 

existing,  although  in  very  small  quantity,  even  when  the 
vine  is  diseased,  and  this  explains,  no  doubt,  why  secondary 
branches  can  develop  on  primary  branches  even  when  all  the 
leaves  are  chlorotic. 

By  way  of  compensation,  in  all  the  tissues  there  is  an 
abundance  of  crystals  of  salts  of  lime,  oxalates,  and  tartrates; 
the  raphides  are  very  abundant,  so  are  the  macles  (caltrop 
or  chiastolite),  etc.,  and  often  small  prismatic  crystals  are 
so  abundant  that  they  darken  the  microscope  field. 

In  short,  chlorosis  impoverishes  the  tissues  of  the  vine  in 
all  matters  necessary  for  its  existence,  hence  the  active  cells 
so  impoverished  are  badly  constituted,  suffer,  and  work 
indifferently.  The  death  of  the  vine  may  result,  if  the  vine 
is  very  sensitive  to  this  affection  (most  of  the  Riparias,  the 
Vialla,  and  Cordifolia  X  Rupestris). 

A  given  variety  of  vine  is  not  equally  subject  to  chlorosis 
at  all  periods  of  its  existence.  In  soils  where  soil  and  sub- 
soil are  both  very  calcareous  (chalky  soils  of  Champagne 
and  Charentes,  and  white  Miocene  marls  of  the  south  of 
France,  etc.),  a  vine  begins  to  turn  yellow  the  first  year  of 
planting  out,  in  August,  September,  or  October,  while  up 
till  that  it  had  remained  green. 

The  next  spring  the  first  shoots  soon  turn  yellow,  and  the 
yellowing  is  somehow  the  continuation  of  the  intensity  of 
that  of  the  previous  year,  and  increases  more  and  more  till 
June  or  July.  From  that  time  forward  the  leaves  often 
become  green  again  till  at  the  end  of  autumn  they  have 
completely  turned  to  green.  Then,  the  third  year,  chlorosis 
appears  later  on,  the  first  shoots  being  green.  It  is  only  in 
May  or  June  that  they  get  chlorotic  again,  but  to  a  smaller 
degree  than  in  the  second  year.  They  also  become  green 
sooner,  and  it  is  not  uncommon  to  see  them  completely  green 
in  August,  or  at  the  latest  in  September.  The  following 
years  chlorosis  only  shows  itself  during  a  short  period,  almost 
always  at  the  end  of  May  or  June,  and  during  very  rainy 
years,  and  does  not  involve  grave  consequences  in  the  vegeta- 
tion of  the  vine. 

This  order  of  things  always  takes  place  in  the  same  way 
with  European  vines,  and  even,  but  with  slighter  differences, 
with  the  less  sensitive  to  chlorosis  of  the  American  vines 
such  as  Berlandieri  and*  Franco-American  hybrids  of 
Berlandieri,  Riparia,  Rupestris,  etc. 

The  second  year  chlorosis  may  be  so  intense  on    certain 


ADAPTATION.  21 

varieties  (those  which  turned  yellow  the  first  year  of  plant- 
ing out)  that  they  only  become  green  with  difficulty,  or  not 
at  all.  These  die  the  third  year,  and  sometimes  even  in  the 
second  (Vialla,  Noah,  Rupestris  X  Cordifolia,  Rupestris  X 
Cinerea,  etc.). 

Finally,  certain  varieties  do  not  become  yellow  the  first 
year,  but  only  the  second;  and  in  this  case  not  at  the 
start  of  the  vegetation,  but  later  on  at  the  end  of  May  or 
June. 

They  also  become  greener  much  earlier  and  much  more 
completely  (the  best  forms  of  V.  Berlandieri  and  its  hybrids 
with  V.  Vinifera). 

In  cases  where  the  soil  is  slightly  calcareous  while  the 
sub-soil  is  strongly  so,  the  same  phenomena  sometimes 
occur,  but  they  become  retarded,  especially  in  warm  and  dry 
localities.  During  the  first,  and  even  the  second  year, 
chlorosis  may  not  be  apparent  as  long  as  the  roots  are  in  the 
slightly  calcareous  surface  soil,  but  directly  they  permeate 
to  the  sub-soil  chlorosis  starts,  and  the  vine  goes  through 
the  same  phenomena. 

Such  are  the  variations  of  intensity  which  chlorosis  may 
present  with  the  age  of  plantation  and  the  nature  of  the 
soil.  We  shall  hereafter  give  the  explanation  of  this 
phenomenon. 

These  characteristics  are  proper  to  this  disease;  and  if 
they  are  found  on  vines  dying  from  phylloxera,  pourridie, 
etc.,  it  is  always  in  calcareous  soils.  Whether  healthy  or 
unhealthy,  they  never  become  yellow  in  clay  or  siliceous  soil. 
This  is  a  very  definite  fact  which  will  enable  us  to  indicate 
the  exact  cause  of  chlorosis  in  vines. 

Sometimes,  however,  we  observe  in  siliceous-clay  soils, 
especially  when  the  spring  is  cold  and  rainy,  vines  with  part  of 
their  foliage  yellow,  leaves  normally  developed,  showing  yellow 
patches  in  places,  or  sometimes  completely  decolourized, 
and  presenting  a  great  analogy  with  those  of  variegated 
plants.  Leaves  variegated  in  this  way  seem  to  develop 
normally,  and  do  not  dry;  the  tissues,  even  the  most  yellow, 
remain  alive,  and  often  become  completely  green  again.  This 
phenomena  is  after  all  only  a  variegation,  the  cause  of  which 
is  not  yet  known. 

In,  short,  withering  vines  in  any  soil  often  have,  when  the 
spring  is  very  rainy,  a  pale-green  colour,  which  manuring 
and  the  return  of  fine  weather  dissipate. 


22  AMERICAN   VINES. 

(6)  Cause  of  Chlorosis. — The  opinions  advanced  to  explain 
the  yellowing  of  the  vine,  and  the  distortment  often  result- 
ing from  it,  are  numerous. 

Chlorosis  has  been  attributed  to  humidity,  to  drought,  or 
to  alternatives  of  drought  and  humidity,  to  the  climate,  to 
lack  of  iron  in  the  soil,  to  deficient  coloration,  and,  therefore, 
heating  power  of  the  soil,  to  grafting,  to  ' '  special  properties, ' ' 
to  carbonate  of  lime,  etc. 

Chlorosis  and  Humidity. — We  have  previously  shown  that 
excessive  humidity  of  the  soil  has  a  certain  influence  on  the 
growth  of  the  vine.  Can  it  bring  about  chlorosis?  It 
sufnces  to  examine  vines  planted  in  very  damp  soils,  but 
non-calcareous,  to  satisfy  oneself  that  it  is  not  due  to 
humidity.  In  the  Chatentes,  in  Cognac,  in  Holland,  where 
vineyards  are  under  water  during  the  winter  and  part  of  the 
spring,  so  much  so  that  culture  is  impossible  up  to  the 
month  of  June,  vines  never  become  yellow,  and  if  sometimes 
patches  of  chlorosis  become  manifest,  it  is  always  on  the  top 
of  small  calcareous  rises,  which,  however,  are  drained  well, 
although  without  being  excessively  dry.  It  is  the  same  in 
the  Saumurois,  where  the  vines  planted  on  the  cretaceous 
banks  of  the  Loire,  which  are  aways  dry,  are  frequently 
yellow,  while  those  planted  on  the  plain,  which  is  very  damp, 
never  become  yellow.  In  Bourgogne  the  vines  on  the  hills 
become  yellow  in  certain  places  every  year;  the  vineyards 
on  the  plain  established  in  siliceous  clay  soil,  compact,  and 
retaining  water,  are  always  completely  green.  In  the 
Gironde  and  in  Languedoc  such  examples  are  common. 

Vines  planted  on  the  banks  of  rivers,  in  old  swamp 
badly  drained  (such  as  certain  vineyards  established  on  the 
Marine  Sands  in  the  Charente-Inferieure  (Arvert,  etc.),  in  the 
Bouches-du-Rhone,  the  Loire-Inferieure,  where  the  water  is 
oft^en  12  to  1 6  inches  over  the  surface,  never  show  signs  of 
chlorosis. 

One  of  us,  during  a  whole  year,  cultivated  Riparias  in  ordi- 
nary water;  they  bore  branches  24  inches  long,  and  a 
small  number  of  short  roots,  without  developing  the  slightest 
patch  of  yellow  on  the  leaves.  An  excess  of  humidity  alone 
has,  therefore,  no  action  on  the  yellowing  of  the  vines.  As, 
however,  in  certain  soils  (calcareous),  it  is  in  spring,  and  after 
very  frequent  rains,  that  vines  become  most  yellow,  no  doubt 
water  has  a  certain  action.  We  will  study  this  case  later 
on. 


ADAPTATION.  23 

Drought  does  not  cause  the  vine  to  become  more  yellow. 
The  experiments  we  made  on  this  are  absolutely  decisive. 
Vines  cultivated  in  pots  were  deprived  during  many  weeks  of 
water;  their  leaves  dried  and  fell  off,  but  were  not  attacked 
by  chlorosis.  Everybody  has  certainly  had  an  opportunity 
of  seeing,  at  a  certain  time  of  the  year,  vines  dry  off  after  a 
long  drought.  In  1890,  1891,  and  1893  notably,  vines  in 
many  regions  in  France  of  the  Charente,  Bourgogne,  and  of 
the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  and  Rhone,  etc.,  suffered 
from  drought  so  severely  as  to  lose  all  their  leaves,  but 
chlorosis  was  never  noticed.  Sometimes  a  very  dry  climate 
may  occasion  chlorosis,  which  does  not  become  manifest  in  a 
cooler  climate  in  soils  of  the  same  nature,  as  is,  perhaps,  the 
case  in  the  south  of  France  (He'rault,  etc.).  This  is  due  to 
the  drought  forcing  the  roots  to  live  deeper  in  a  layer  of  cal- 
careous sub-soil,  but  drought  alone  is  not  a  cause  of  chlorosis. 
It  can  only  increase  the  evil,  as  in  the  case  above  mentioned; 
more  often  it  diminishes  it.  We  will  see  later  on  in  what 
way. 

Drought  and  humidity  acting  alternately  cannot  be  seriously 
invoked,  for  quite  frequently  many  plantations  are  submitted 
to  alternatives  of  drought  and  humidity,  without,  however, 
suffering  from  chlorosis. 

According  to  this  hypothesis,  rains  in  certain  soil  would 
drown  the  roots,  which  later  on  would  become  completely 
dry.  We  have  made  researches  to  try  and  ascertain  if  this 
hypothesis  is  correct. 

Vines  cultivated  for  a  long  time  in  swamp  land,  saturated 
with  water,  and  suddenly  exposed  to  an  intense  drought 
never  became  yellow.  In  soils  of  Champagne,  Charentes, 
and  Bourgogne,  in  patches  of  land  where  the  vines  wither, 
in  the  Herault,  Saint-Emillionnais,  Blayais,  etc.,  it  does  not 
happen  in  those  which  become  saturated  with  water  and 
subsequently  become  dry.  Even  after  heavy  rains  those 
soils  may  be  worked,  and  in  many  of  them  vines  have  never 
suffered  from  drought,  and  yet  chlorosis  obtains  an  intense 
development. 

What  is  above  described  shows  also  that  neither  the 
defective  porosity  of  the  soil  nor  excessive  humidity  can 
cause  the  vine  to  turn  yellow. 

Chlorosis  and  Iron. — As  previously  stated,  chlorosis  is 
characterized  by  the  disappearance  of  chlorophyll  from  the 
leaves  and  all  herbaceous  organs.  Sachs  has  shown  that 


24  AMERICAN  VINES. 

iron  plays  a  useful  part  in  the  formation  of  chlorophyll.  It 
was  easy  to  conclude  from  this  that  its  disappearance  from 
the  tissues  of  the  plant  was  due  to  a  deficiency  of  iron.  The 
first  studies  of  Chauzit  and  Foex  show,  however,  that  in 
soils  where  this  affection  takes  place  there  is  the  same 
amount  of  iron,  and  often  more  than  in  those  where  the  vines 
remain  green.  The  following  figures  prove  this: — 

1.  Soil  of  the  School  of  Agriculture,  Montpellier,  where 

vines    become    yellow 2 .  740 

2.  Soil  of  the  School  of  Agriculture,  Montpellier,  where 

vines  do  not  become  yellow 2 . 445 

3.  Soil  of  the  School  of  Agriculture,  Montpellier,  where 

vines  do  not  become  yellow 2 . 000 

And,  again,  the  chalky  soils  of  the  environs  of  Cognac,  which 
are  the  most  refractory  to  the  culture  of  American  vines, 
often  contain  a  large  amount  of  iron,  while  in  the  same 
locality  soils  in  which  chlorosis  does  not  occur  contain  less 
iron. 

It  is  true  that  in  many  of  these  soils  iron  does  not  exist 
in  the  same  state  of  oxidation,  and  therefore  of  assimila- 
bility.  But  it  has  often  been  obs  rved  that  in  the  groies 
soils  of  the  Charentes,  the  greves  soils  of  Bourgogne,  and  in 
many  localities  of  the  south  where  vines  beome  yellow,  that 
such  soils  are  strongly  red-coloured  by  sesquioxide  of  iron, 
which  is  easily  assimilable  in  this  form.  And,  again,  very 
siliceous  soils,  almost  entirely  white  and  poor  in  assimilable 
iron,  never  bear  yellow  vines  (sandy  soils  of  the  Bartonian 
and  Eocene  of  the  south,  and  the  upper  Eocene  of  the 
Charentes-Inf  erieure) . 

On  the  other  hand,  Gautier's  studies  have  shown  that  iron 
does  not  enter  into  the  composition  of  chlorophyll.  Should 
we  conclude  from  this  that  iron,  whatever  be  the  form  in 
which  it  exists  in  the  soil,  cannot  prevent  chlorosis,  and  that 
its  absence  is  in  no  way  an  obstacle  to  the  well-being  of  the 
American  vines  ? 

Chlorois  and  Iron  Salts. — However,  there  is  an  undeniable 
fact;  this  is,  the  positive  efficacy  of  salts  of  iron  on  vines 
and  other  plants  in  bringing  about  the  return  of  the  green 
colour. 

If  iron  salts  do  not  enter  into  the  composition  of  chloro- 
phyll they  certainly  induce  its  formation.  Many  experiments 
prove  this.  Eusebe  Gris  (1840)  and,  later  on,  his  son,  Arthur 


ADAPTATION.  25 

Gris  (1850),  showed  positively  the  action  of  sulphate  of  iron 
placed  around  the  stump  or  on  the  leaves  of  chlorotic  vines 
in  causing  the  return  of  the  green  colour. 

These  facts,  often  contradicted,  have  been  proved  indis- 
putably in  recent  years. 

Max.  Tord,  for  instance,  experimented  in  a  groie  soil 
near  Saint-Jean-d'Angely,  on  ten  contiguous  plots  of  identical 
composition,  with  many  substances;  sulphate  of  iron  crystals 
placed  near  the  stump  of  the  vine,  or  between  the  vines,  or 
distributed  broadcast  at  the  rate  of  4  ounces  per  square 
yard;  superphosphate  and  sulphate  of  potassium;  sulphate 
of  iron  dissolved  in  water,  at  the  rate  of  4  to  4^  ounces  per 
2  or  2%  gallons  of  water  per  vine.  The  applications  were 
made  during  March.  Sulphate  of  iron  in  solution  in  water 
alone  gave  positive  results.  The  plot  treated  in  this  way 
showed  no  chlorosis;  the  canes  attained  a  normal  develop- 
ment, while  all  the  other  plots,  without  exception,  were  of  a 
bright  orange  colour  the  same  as  the  whole  vineyard.  Tord 
draws  the  following  conclusion: — 

' '  Sulphate  of  iron  used  to  check  chlorosis  is  efficacious 
if  applied  early  (at  the  end  of  February  or  beginning  of 
March)  at  the  rate  of  4  to  4^  ounces  per  vine  dissolved 
in  2  or  2  %  gallons  of  water. 

"Crushed  crystals  of  sulphate  of  iron,  alone,  or  united 
with  potassic  or  phosphate  compounds,  does  not  produce  any 
appreciable  effect,  at  least  during  the  first  year  of  applica- 
tion. 

' '  Sulphate  of  potassium  and  superphosphate  used  in 
the  natural  state  do  not  give  any  apparent  result. ' ' 

Cazeaux-Cazalet,  and  many  other  viticulturists,  arrived  at 
the  same  conclusions.  Finally,  we  have  also  made  experi- 
ments, the  results  of  which  are  similar  to  the  above.  A 
Noah  vine  (a  c£page  very  sensitive  to  chlorosis)  planted  in 
chalky  soil  was  submitted  to  the  following  treatment: — 
One  row  was  treated  with  a  solution  of  10^  ounces  of 
sulphate  of  iron  in  2%  gallons  of  water  placed  at  the  foot  of 
each  vine;  one  row  with  a  solution  of  5^  ounces  of 
sulphate  of  iron  in  2%  gallons  of  water  placed  at  the  foot  of 
each  vine;  one  row  with  a  solution  of  io>£  ounces  of 
crystallized  sulphate  of  iron  per  vine;  one  row  not  treated. 

The  application  was  made  in  May.  After  a  few  days  the 
plants  which  had  been  treated  with  io>£  ounces  of  sulphate 
of  iron  in  solution  assumed  a  very  marked  green  tint,  which 


26  AMERICAN  VINES. 

later  on  appeared,  but  in  lesser  intensity,  in  the  row  treated 
with  5^  ounces.  The  row  treated  with  the  crystals  of 
sulphate  of  iron  did  not  appear  to  be  affected  in  any  way. 
As  for  the  non-treated  row,  it  became  yellower. 

All  these  experiments  prove  that  sulphate  of  iron  has 
a  .marked  action  on  the  reappearance  of  the  green  colour, 
which  is  so  much  the  more  marked  as  the  quantity  applied 
is  greater. 

In  crystals,  its  efficacy  is  much  less.  However,  in  the 
south  of  France,  good  results  were  obtained,  especially  after 
a  few  years  use  of  sulphate  of  iron  in  that  form  in  great 
quantities.  Two  and  a  quarter  Ibs.  per  vine,  at  least,  should 
be  applied,  and  even  with  that  large  amount  good  results  do 
not  always  follow. 

Sprayed  on  the  leaves  in  the  proportion  of  i  per  cent,  dis- 
solved in  water,  sulphate  of  iron  brings  about  the  disappear- 
ance of  chlorosis.  Eusebe  and  Arthur  Gris  were  the  first  to 
establish  this  definitely.  Narbonne  was  able  to  diminish  by 
this  means  the  intensity  of  chlorosis  in  a  large  vineyard  near 
Bize  (Aude).  We  arrived  at  the  same  results  also. 

Gouirand  recently  experimented  with  numerous  salts  of 
iron  in  chalky  soils  of  the  Charentes,  where  chlorosis  attains 
a  very  serious  form.  These  salts  were  sulphate,  tartrate, 
malate,  acetate,  tannate,  sucrate,  and  carbonate  of  iron, 
applied  by  spraying  on  the  leaves.  The  four  first  salts  gave 
positive  results,  the  three  last  had  little  or  no  action.  The 
sulphate  seemed  to  be  the  most  active. 

Many  horticulturists  and  botanists  attribute  the  reappear- 
ance of  the  green  colour  to  the  fact  that  the  leaf  contains 
tannin,  which  combining  with  the  iron  forms  tannate  of  iron 
of  blackish-green  colour. 

This  explanation  is  not  plausible;  it  suffices  to  examine  a 
treated  leaf  under  the  microscope  to  ascertain  that  it  does 
not  take  place,  and  that  the  reappearance  of  the  green  colour 
is  due  only  to  the  reappearance  of  chlorophyll.  Arthur  Gris 
showed  this  long  since  (Ann.  Scienc.  not.  1857.  4th  series. 
Vol.  VII. ,  p.  179)  by  attentively  following  the  developments 
and  multiplications  of  the  chlorophyll  corpuscles  and  their 
colourations  (pi.  V.  to  X.).  What  is  then  the  action  of  the 
salts  of  iron  on  chlorophyll  ? 

Eusebe  and  Arthur  Gris  ascertained  in  etiolated  plants 
the  phenomena  of  the  developing  and  colouring  of  chloro-  ' 
phyll  corpuscles    under    the    direct    and     intimate     action 


ADAPTATION.  2J 

of  sulphate  of  iron  but  without  giving  any  explanation. 
Sachs  attributes  the  formation  of  the  new  chlorophyll  cor- 
puscles to  the  iron  itself. 

According  to  Max  Tord,  sulphate  of  iron  placed  in  solu- 
tion at  the  foot  of  the  vine  transforms  the  carbonate  of 
lime  dissolved  in  the  water  of  the  soil  charged  with  car- 
bonic acid  into  sulphate  of  lime  This  explanation  is  no 
doubt  partly  correct,  for  by  spraying  chlorotic  vines  with 
sulphuric  acid  one  seems  to  succeed  in  causing  the  reappear- 
ance of  the  green  colour,  but  it  is  also  very  probable  that  the 
sulphate  of  iron  has  a  direct  action  on  the  vine  after  being 
absorbed  by  the  roots.  This  is  proved  by^  its  action  and  that 
of  other  salts  of  iron  soluble  in  the  sappy  liquids  of  the 
vine.  In  this  case,  it  is  true  their  efficacy  may  be  attributed 
to  their  acidity.  Chlorotic  leaves  are  less  acid  than  green 
leaves,  as  shown  by  Gouirand  in  the  following  table: — 

Acidity  per  1,000. 
Chlorotic  leaves  in  calcareous  soil .  .          .  .          .  .        2.63 

Green  4 . 65 

non-calcareous  soil  .  .          .  .        5.73 

Fremy  noticed  that  the  reappearance  of  the  green  colour 
in  etiolated  plants  could  be  brought  about  by  surrounding 
them  with  acid  vapours.  But  Gouirand,  by  spraying  the 
leaves  with  the  diluted  acids  of  the  salts  of  iron  above  men- 
tioned, did  not  obtain  any  appreciable  results. 

Whatever  may  be  the  cause,  the  beneficial  effects  of  many 
iron  compounds  are  certain.  If  it  is  not  yet  possible  to  give 
a  satisfactory  explanation  of  these  phenomena,  one  can,  how- 
ever, in  practice,  derive  advantage  from  them.  Of  all  the 
iron  salts  above-studied  the  sulphate  is,  with  slight  difference, 
the  most  efficacious;  it  must,  therefore,  be  utilized  in  prefer- 
ence to  any  other. 

It  may  be  used  in  different  ways.  In  fine  pulverized 
crystals,  spread  on  the  soil  round  the  stump,  it  does  not  give 
very  good  results.  Is  this  because  it  is  decomposed  there 
and  then  by  the  undissolved  carbonate  of  lime  before  it  has 
penetrated  to  the  roots?  Whatever  the  cause  may  be.  under 
this  shape  it  only  gives  satisfactory  results  when  used  in  large 
quantites  (2%  or  4%  Ibs.  per  vine)  and  before  the  winter 
rains  are  over;  later  on  its  action  is  nil,  except  in  cases  where 
the  application  is  followed  by  heavy  irrigation. 

It  is  more  effective  in  solution       The  quantity  used  should 


28  AMERICAN  VINES. 

be  at  least  i  Ib  dissolved  in  2  gallons  of  water  or  liquid 
manure. 

Poured  about  the  foot  of  the  vine  in  April,  this  solution 
has  a  very  durable  action,  and  in  the  majority  of  cases  assures 
healthy  vegetation  during  the  whole  summer. 

Sprayed  on  the  leaves  the  effect  is  more  immediate ;  eight 
or  ten  days  after  being  treated  the  leaves  become  green  again. 
But  the  action  is  purely  local,  and  does  not  extend  to  the 
tissues,  which  have  not  been  placed  in  direct  contact  with  the 
liquid.  The  new  shoots  gain  very  little  by  it.  The  spraying, 
therefore,  must  be  repeated  very  frequently  when  the 
chlorosis  is  in  an  advanced  form.  The  solution  should  be 
weak,  even  at  i  per  cent,  strength  it  sometimes  burns  the 
tissues;  11-3  ounces  of  sulphate  of  iron  per  gallon  of  water 
is  the  best  strength  to  use. 

Dr.  Rassiguier  proposed  painting  the  trunk,  before  pruning, 
with  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron  containing  30  to  45  per 
cent.  The  results  are  very  satisfactory,  and  this  method 
has  been  applied  on  a  large  scale  in  French  vineyards.  It  is 
when  the  vine  is  in  a  state  of  active  life  that  the  effects  of 
the  painting  are  best:  in  autumn,  before  the  leaves  fall;  the 
results  are  almost  nil  in  spring,  when  the  too  abundant 
bleeding  prevents  the  absorption  of  the  ferrous  solution,  or 
rejects  it  outside.  One  proceeds  with  the  pruning,  and 
directly  after,  all  the  cuts,  the  spurs,  the  long  rods  and  the 
trunk  are  painted  in  the  same  manner  as  is  done  in  the 
treatment  for  anthracnosis.  The  Rassiguier  method  assures 
a  good  growth  of  the  American  vines  in  the  majority  of  cal- 
careous soils. 

All  these  treatments  may  be  applied  simultaneously,  thair 
effects  are  added,  and  we  may  doubtless  in  this  way  attenuate 
chlorosis;  but  these  operations  become  relatively  expensive, 
and  it  is  only  in  special  cases  that  they  may  be  applied, 
notably  for  vines  which  only  become  chlorotic  at  intervals; 
or,  again,  in  order  to  assure  the  normal  development  of  young 
vines  which  became  yellow  at  the  second  or  third  year  after 
planting. 

Chlorosis,  Light,  and  Heat. — Absence,  as  well  as  excess,  of 
light  may  cause  a  disappearance  of  chlorophyll.  Boussin- 
gault  and  Gris  were  the  first  to  point  out  this  phenomena. 
It  suffices  to  recall  the  light  colour  of  plants  grown  in  a  dark 
place,  or  of  organs  exposed  to  too  much  light,  but  in  vines 
nothing  of  the  sort  takes  place. 


ADAPTATION.  29 

Chlorosis  manifests  itself  with  as  much  intensity  in  the 
south,  where  light  is  never  defective,  as  in  the  south-west  or 
centre,  where  the  sky  is  often  cloudy,  and  vice  versa.  Again, 
anybody  may  notice  chlorotic  vines  side  by  side  with  green 
vines,  that  is  to  say  vines  receiving  the  same  quantity  of 
light. 

The  reflexion  of  the  rays  of  the  sun  by  soils  of  light 
colour  (chalky  soils  of  Dordogne,  Blayais,  etc.)  cannot  be 
invoked  here,  as  vines  become  yellow  in  the  darkest  soils, 
such  as  the  calcarous  soil  of  the  Charentes,  Saumurois, 
Poitou,  etc. 

G  Foe'x,  in  his  remarkable  study.  '  The  Causes  of 
Chlorosis  in  the  Herbemont, ' '  showed  that  the  c£page  became 
yellow,  especially  in  cold  (or  sour)  soils,  in  spring.  The 
experiments  made  by  him,  which  we  witnessed  ourselves,  and 
the  results  obtained,  show  that  a  smaller  or  greater  facility 
of  heating  of  the  soil  may  increase  or  attenuate  chlorosis. 
Millardet  and  others  arrived  at  almost  the  same  conclusion. 

We  must  draw  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  chalky  soils 
above-mentioned,  as  well  as  the  red  and  jchreous  soils  of  the 
Charentes  and  the  greves  soils  of  Bourgogne,  are  all  coloured 
brown,  or  even  dark  red,  and  they  are  mellow,  light,  and 
permeable,  and  absorb  heat  easily.  The  first  of  these,  notably 
during  the  summer,  after  a  few  sunny  days,  are  burning;  and 
it  is  in  these  soils  that  vines  become  most  yellow.  On  the 
other  hand,  white,  compact,  and  sour  soils  never  bear  yellow 
vines. 

Finally,  in  measuring  the  temperature  of  different  soils, 
some  in  which  vines  become  yellow,  others  in  which  they 
remain  constantly  green,  we  have  never  been  able  to  find 
any  difference.  We  must,  therefore,  conclude  that  the 
coldness  of  soil  has  nothing  to  do  with  chlorosis.  Yet  the 
probatory  experiments  of  Foex  and  Millardet  tend  to  prove 
the  contrary.  We  will  show  later  on  how  a  soil  remaining 
cold  during  a  long  period  may,  in  certain  cases,  aggravate 
this  affection,  and  also  that  the  deficiency  of  light,  which 
always  accompanies  an  intensity  of  heat,  acts  in  the  same 
way. 

Chlorosis  and  Climate. — The  non-success  of  American 
vines  in  many  soils  has  been  attributed  to  the  climate.  The 
American  vines,  it  is  said,  are  not  yet  acclimatized.  Has 
this  assertion  any  value?  Firstly,  it  seems  strange  that 
such  opinion  may  have  been  expressed  when  yellow  and 


30  AMERICAN  VINES. 

green  vines  have  been  seen  side  by  side  in  the  same  plot. 
And  is  the  climate  of  America  so  different  from  ours?  The 
same  plants,  the  same  cultures,  succeed  in  both  countries,  and 
if  there  is  a  difference  it  is  in  favour  of  ours.  In  America 
the  temperature  often  goes  to  very  great  extremes  (from — 30° 
to  +  43°  C) ;  rain  falls  in  periods  alternating  with  long  and 
intense  droughts  to  such  an  extent  that  many  plants  cannot 
reach  complete  development, — all  conditions  that  are  less 
favorable  to  the  vegetation  of  the  vines  or  other  plants 
than  our  temperate  climate,  where  rain  does  not  alternate 
with  long  periods  of  drought,  and  where  extremes  of  tem- 
perature are  not  so  great. 

American  vines  are  less  sensitive  to  cold  than  European; 
in  the  Rh6ne  Valley,  n6rth  of  Lyons,  the  temperature  went 
down  to  — 30°  C  in  1890,  the  indigenous  vines  of  all  ages  were 
entirely  frozen  and  had  to  be  cut  down  close  to  the  ground. 
The  American  vines,  on  the  contrary,  resisted  well  and  did 
not  suffer  from  the  cold;  the  Jacquez  alone  had  a  few  buds 
frozen. 

Therefore,  without  being  taxed  with  exaggeration,  we  may 
say  that  the  climate  of  France  is  more  favorable  to  the 
American  vines  than  the  climate  of  America. 

It  suffices  to  examine  what  takes  place  in  France  to  be 
convinced  that  the  milder,  more  temperate,  and  less  liable 
to  drought  a  climate  is,  the  more  favorable  it  is  to  the 
growth  of  the  American  vines.  Thus,  in  the  south  of  France, 
Riparia  and  Rupestris  are  the  only  stocks  commonly  used. 
All  the  others  do  not  grow  well  there.  Vialla,  Herbemont, 
and  York-Madeira  have  been  totally  discarded.  In  less 
warm  regions,  such  as  the  south-east,  centre,  and  east  of 
France,  the  Vialla,  Herbemont,  and  York-Madeira  have  been 
for  a  long  time  cultivated  with  success,  either  as  grafting- 
stock  or  direct  producers.  The  Vialla  is  almost'  the  standard 
grafting-stock  of  the  Beaujolais,  as  well  as  in  certain  soils 
of  Bourgogne,  Charentes  and  Gironde  The  Herbemont, 
which  does  not  grow  in  the  south,  has  a  splendid  vegetation 
in  similar  soils  in  Gironde  or  Charentes,  etc.  The  same 
thing  applies  to  York-Madeira  and  Oporto,  etc.  It  is  that 
in  these  warm  regions  these  cepages  can  live  in  the 
upper  layers  of  the  soil, which  is  better,  or,  to  be  more  correct, 
less  noxious;  it  is  also  that  the  phylloxera,  which  must  be 
taken  into  account  in  the  adaptation  of  a  vine  to  the  soil, 
does  less  harm  in  cold  than  in  warm  regions.  If,  therefore 


ADAPTATION. 


the  reconstitution  of  vineyards  has  been  made  a  success  in 
the  Mediterranean  region,  it  must  d  fortiori  prove  a  much 
greater  success  in  the  other  regions  of  France,  and  that  is  in 
effect  what  really  occurs. 

What  other  causes  have  not  been  invoked  to  explain 
chlorosis?  We  will  not  examine  them  all.  We  must  only 
remember  this — that  humidity,  drought,  or  alternatives  of 
humidity  and  drought,  deficiency  of  iron,  deficiency  of  light, 
coldness  of  soil,  absence  of  colour  on  the  surface  of  the  soil, 
compactness,  aridity,  deficiency  of  fertilizing  principles, 
climates  too  cold  or  too  dry  are  not,  separately  or  combined, 
the  cause  of  chlorosis. 

Chlorosis  and  Carbonate  of  Lime. — Chlorosis  has  also 
been  attributed  to  the  influence  of  the  carbonate  of  lime  con- 
tained in  the  soil.  What  is  certain  and  absolutely  constant 
is  that  this  disease  only  manifests  itself  in  calcareous  soils, 
and  the  greater  the  proportion  of  this  substance  present,  the 
more  intense  the  chlorosis  will  be.  We  have  never  seen 
vines  become  yellow  except  in  calcareous  soils,  and  this 
observation  may  be  extended  to  the  apricot,  quince,  pear,  etc. 
A  vine  may  be  in  a  bad  state,  stunted,  or  attacked  by  disease, 
but  if  in  non-calcareous  soil  it  will  never  become  yellow. 
No  doubt  it  will  not  have  the  deep -green  colour  of  vigorous 
vines,  but  its  leaves  will  never  show  the  characteristic  appear- 
ance of  chlorosis.  This  is  a  point  upon  which  we  wish  to 
insist,  and  which  limits  the  conditions  under  which  this 
affection  will  always  take  place. 

Some  figures,  ctue  to  Chauzit,  will  show  the  narrow  rela- 
tion (from  cause  to  effect)  existing  between  carbonate  of 
lime  and  chlorosis. 


/. — Soils   in   which 


American    Vines 
turn  yellow. 


1.  Vans     (Ardeche) 

2.  Beauvoisin  (Gard) 

3.  L6denon     (Gard) 

4  Pezilla(Pyrenees-Orientales) . 

5  Ciotat(Bouches-du-Rh6ne)     . 

6.  Pignan      (Herault)      .  . 

7.  St.   Rambert-d ' Albon  (Drome) 

8.  Chauvilliere  (Charente-Inf.) 

9.  subsoil 

10.  Tout-y-faut  (Charente-Inf.) 

1 1 .  subsoil 

12.  Chapitre     (Charente-Inf.) 


grow  well,    and   never 


Limestone. 

5.93  per  cent. 

4.25 

3.67 

8.79 

0.68 

7.20 

2.92 

3.18 

4.85 

2.12 

3.65 

5.90 


AMERICAN  VINES. 


//. — Soils    in    which    American    Vines    become    chlorosed: — 

Limestone. 

59.72  per  cent. 
72  67 
4.65 
35.25 
58.86 
49.00 
52.00 


1.  Quissac   (Gard)  ..          ... 

2.  Pujaut    (Gard) 

3.  Villeveyrac    (Herault) 

4.  Verchant   (Herault) 

5.  subsoil 

6.  Leucate    (Aude)          .  . 

7.  Aveyron 

8.  Chevillon    (Char. -Inf.)    (groie) 

9.  Ecurolles 

10.  Montis 

11.  St.  Jean-d ' Angely  (groie)    .  . 

12.  "  subsoil    .  . 

13.  Julliac-le-Coq.(Charente)      .  . 

14.  subsoil 

15.  d'Angeac  (Champagne) 

16.  subsoir 

17.  Maine-Neuf  (Grande-Champagne) 

18.  "  subsoil 


56.46 
44.67 
52.75 
59.55 
67.80 
43.60 
68.55 
56.37 
75.35 
48.53 
75.76 


It  is  easy  to  prove  that  it  is  the  carbonate  of  lime  which 
makes  the  vine  turn  yellow.  It  suffices  to  convince  oneself, 
to  place  at  the  foot  of  vines  sensitive  to  this  affection  chalk 
or  any  pieces  of  calcareous  material,  debris  from  buildings, 
mortar,  etc.,  and  one  will  be  able  to  obtain  any  degree  of 
chlorosis. 

How  does  the  carbonate  of  lime  act?  Chauzit,  who  pub- 
lished a  very  remarkable  work  on  this  subject,  advanced  the 
idea  that  it  acted  in  modifying  the  physical  structure,  or 
better,  in  communicating  to  the  soil  special  properties. 

It  is  more  probable  that  carbonate  of  lime  has  a  direct 
action  on  the  vine,  and  that  it  is  so  much  the  more  injurious 
as  it  is  absorbed  in  greater  quantity ;  or,  what  comes  to  the 
same  thing,  that  it  presents  itself  in  a  more  assimilable 
form.  Fragments  of  hard  limestone  placed  at  the  foot  of 
the  vine  do  not  cause  it  to  turn  yellow,  while  similar  frag- 
ments, if  friable,  and  therefore  easily  attackable  by  rain- 
water and  frost,  generally  produce  chlorosis.  By  causing 
vines  to  grow  in  lime-water,  the  leaves  rapidly  turn  yellow, 
while  remaining  green  if  in  ordinary  water. 

The  intimate  action  of  carbonate  of  lime  in  the  cells  of 
the  plant  has  not  yet  been  sufficiently  studied  to  enable  us 
to  give  a  precise  explanation.  Does  it  precipitate  the 
organic  acids  while  they  are  forming?  The  diminution  of 
the  acidity  in  yellow  leaves,  or  even  of  those  remaining  green 
in  calcareous  soil,  allow  us  to  suppose  so.  It  results  in 
restraining  the  functions  of  the  cells,  which  become  poorer 


ADAPTATION.  33 

in  nitrogenous  matters  and  carbo-hydrates.  The  chlorophyll 
disappears  first,  and  new  chlorophyll  corpuscles  are  not 
formed;  consequently,  the  matters  absorbed  by  the  roots  are 
not  elaborated  any  longer  by  the  green  matter  which  has 
disappeared ;  or  they  are  imperfectly  elaborated  by  an  insuf- 
ficient quantity  of  badly-developed  green  matter. 

Whatever  the  case  may  be,  although  the  question  has  not 
been  sufficiently  elucidated,  carbonate  of  lime  is  the  true 
cause  of  chlorosis.* 

Can  the  other  salts  of  lime  cause  chlorosis?  They  have 
not  all  been  studied  from  this  point  of  view;  however,  in 
practice,  we  need  not  be  pre-occupied  by  most  of  them. 
Sulphate  of  lime  (gypsum)  alone  is  found  to  a  certain 
extent  in  some  vineyards.  It  does  not  seem  that  it  has 
the  power  of  rendering  the  vine  yellow.  The  study  made 
by  Chauzit  of  certain  vineyards  planted  in  gypseous  land 
shows  that  chlorosis  is  only  found  when  the  gypsum  exists 
side  by  side  with  carbonate  of  lime.  One  of  us  has 
cultivated  American  grafted  vines  in  artificial  soils  con- 
taining 55  per  cent,  of  sulphate  of  lime.  The  vegetation 
is  stunted  under  these  conditions ;  the  vine  after  developing 
normally  at  the  start,  stops  and  remains  weak,  and  although 
this  circumstance  is  favorable  to  the  appearance  of  chlorosis 
they  have  always  remained  green. 

But  from  what  has  been  said,  one  must  not  conclude 
that  analysis  will  always  give  the  measure  of  the  effect  of 
carbonate  of  lime  on  the  vine.  Its  action  may  be 
modified  by  different  circumstances,  and  increased  or 
diminished  very  sensibly.  It  is,  firstly,  dependent  not 
only  on  the  quantity  of  carbonate  of  lime  in  the  soil,  but 
also  on  the  distribution  of  this  substance  amongst  others: 
sand,  clay,  etc. :  and  two  soils  equally  calcareous  may  present 
from  this  point  of  view  marked  differences.  If,  in  a  given 
soil,  the  carbonate  of  lime  is  disposed  around  grains  of 
siliceous  matter  (calcareous  sandstone,  tertiary  sands 
surrounding  Montpellier.  etc.);  the  vines  will  become  much 
more  yellow  than  in  the  case  of  another  soil  where  the 

*  Amongst  white  soils  the  exterior  aspect  of  which  is  identical  with  that  of 
chalky  soils,  and  which  might,  perhaps,  have  an  action  as  a  cause  of  chlorosis, 
are  the  dolomitic  soils  (carbonate  of  magnesia)  and  the  gypseous  soils  (sulphate 
of  lime). 

American  vines  have  been  cultivated  with  success  in  the  dolomitic  soils  of 
the  Gard  (Bajocien,  Bathonien  and  Infralias).  It  has  been  noticed  that  in 
soils  containing  up  to  42  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  magnesium  (Chauzit  Jean- 
Jean,  Desjardins)  the  American  vines,  even  the  Riparias,  throve. 


34 


AMERICAN  VINES. 


carbonate  of  lime  exists  finely  pulverized,  mixed  with 
siliceous  grains  and  coated  with  clay.  In  the  former,  not- 
withstanding the  high  percentage  of  silica,  the  roots  are 
in  immediate  contact  with  carbonate  of  lime ;  in  the  second, 
on  the  contrary,  the  contact  only  exists  at  a  few  points, 
and  the  clay  in  some  cases  coating  the  small  grains  of 
limestone  isolates  them  from  the  roots  and  renders  them 
less  attackable  by  water  charged  with  carbonic  acid,  and 
so  diminished  its  detrimental  effect.  The  ameliorating 
effect  of  clay  was  pointed  out  by  several  observers,  notably 
Cazeaux-Cazalet  and  Chauzit.  We  must  also  take  into 
account  the  state  of  division  of  the  carbonate  of  lime  in 
the  soil;  in  very  small  grains  it  offers  a  greater  surface 
than  when  in  large  grains.  In  porous  and  soft  grains 
(chalk)  it  is  more  noxious  than  when  the  grains  are 
compact  or  crystallized. 

It  results  from  this,  that  the  different  states  under  which 
carbonate  of  lime  is  found  in  soils  have  different  properties. 
Certain  limestones  are  very  easily  attacked  by  dilute  acids, 
while  others  are  less  so.  This  is  shown  in  the  following 
table,  taken  from  Houdaille  and  Semichon: — 

RATE  OF  SPECIFIC  ATTACK  OF  LIMESTONES 


S0S5 

ll 

| 

j  -^'S  p, 

38 

*c  o 

n 

•jj 

Description  of  Calcareous  Rocks. 

o.S'o  o 

gj'd^     M 

arbonate  of 
;tacked  per  s 

otal  Surface 
articles  of  s< 
E  Rock. 

.ate  of  Sp^ci 
ttack. 

<38<5&S 

O  a 

H 

< 

Pliocene  marl  ,  containing  concretions 

93.2 

113.0 

83.90 

1.350 

White  chalk  of  Meudon 

99.0 

94.4 

76.92 

1.227 

Limestone,  containing  milliolites  .  . 

99.0 

53.0 

60.14 

0.883 

Porous   quaternary  tufa 

94.1 

74.0 

83.90 

0.882 

Molasse    of    Montpellier 

53.7 

42.5 

57.42 

0.745 

Lower  lacustrian  limestone 

93.0 

37.8 

56.84 

0.665 

Yellow  earthly  neocomien  limestone 

(St.  Jean-de-Cuculle)            .  . 

93.0 

42.5 

80.69 

0.525 

Red  highland  limestone  (Devonian) 
Carboniferous   limestone 

97.0 
93.3 

35.5 
34.0 

73.40 
74.59 

0.484 
0.456 

Cavernous  dolomite  of  St.  Be"  at  .  . 

95.0 

32.7 

74.49 

0.439 

Crystalline  dolomitic  limestone  (Pic 

St.  Loup,       

103.2 

32.7 

74.70 

0.437 

Corallian  limestone  (St.  George)  .  . 

95.9 

37.8 

85.0 

0.435 

ADAPTATION.  35 

RATE  OF  SPECIFIC  ATTACK  OF  LIMESTONES — continued. 


0          C   K 

o'c 

d 

.§  °|  s 

6  ° 

^6 

aj 

o  o 

£ 

Description  of  Calcareous  Rock. 

iff!* 

1| 

Ji 

1 

CO 

|||  il 

11 

in 

|1 

6  8(3  Is 

3i 

£fc 

£< 

Cipolin  limestone 

93.3 

31.0 

76.0 

0.407 

Shelly  limestone    (triturated     ternary 

shells) 

97.5 

42.5 

103.0 

0.407 

Jurassic    limestone      containing    am- 

monite   polyplocus 
Upper  lacustrian  limestone 

97.0 
98.0 

31.0 
48.5 

83.16 
102.05 

0.373 
0.370 

Neocomien       limestone        containing 

serpules            ..                                   ..91.0 

32.0 

89.0 

0.360 

Pink  corallian  limestone  (Lavalette)       95.9 

28.3 

82.5 

0.342 

Devonian  limestone  of  Caunes            .  .  j   95.0 

24.2 

74.70 

0.325 

Black    limestone  of   Ariege  (Primary 

strata) 

92.5 

21.3 

74.830.285 

Devonian  black  limestone  of  Marignac 

92.0 

21.3 

76.87 

0.277 

Spar     (limestone      crystallized     in 

rhombic  system) 

100.0 

17.0 

65.0 

0.262 

Oxfordian  limestone  (St.  George)     .  . 

80.0 

24.2 

96.5 

0.250 

Bajocien    limestone,    containing  en- 

crines    (starfish) 

82.6 

17.9 

75.5 

0.237 

Bajocien  limestone,  containing  chailles 

81.8 

18.9 

91.0 

0  200 

Neocomian  limestone  (Lavalette)      .  . 

92.5 

20.0 

102.0    0.198 

Porous  dolomite  (Cargneule) 

69.5 

16.5 

98.050.168 

Aragonite     (prismatic     carbonate    of 

lime 

97.0 

12.1 

75.0 

0.160 

Bajocien  limestone,    containing   can- 

celloficus 

62.0 

7.95 

76.0 

0.104 

Pyreneean        disintegrated        marble 

(primary  strata) 

35.5 

1.91 

57.060.035 

Bajocien,  dolomitic  limestone 

81.0 

2.24 

86.0    0.026 

Black    dolomitic    limestone    (Pic    St. 

Loup) 

101.8 

0.373 

73.570.00508 

Ferruginous  dolomite  of  Ariege 
Bituminous  bajocien  limestone 

80.0 
94.0 

0.154 
0.100 

76.080.00202 
78.0    0.00128 

Devonian  limestone  (Lodeve) 

77.0 

0.060 

65.0 

0.00093 

Again,  other  causes  modify  the  action  of  carbonate  of  lime 
on  vines.  All  vinegrowers  in  the  south  of  France,  Saumurois, 
Bourgogne,  Champagne,  etc.,  have  remarked  that  vines  be- 
come yellow  in  the  spring  during  very  damp  years,  and  that 
they  remain  yellow  until  the  return  of  the  heat  of  summer. 


36  AMERICAN  VINES. 

Since  we  started  studying  chlorosis  in  French  regions,  we 
have  always  seen  the  same  phenomena  take  place — intense 
yellowing  during  wet  springs,  slight  on  the  contrary  during 
dry  springs,  and  .in  both  cases  disappearance  in  July  or 
August.  The  same  thing  happens  with  American  vines; 
but  as  chlorosis  is  generally  more  intense,  the  recovery  of  the 
green  colour  is  not  so  complete;  sometimes,  even  with  certain 
varieties,  it  does  not  reappear  at  all.  In  this  case,  therefore, 
chlorosis  seems  to  be  in  intimate  relation  with  humidity,  and 
yet  we  have  seen  that  humidity  alone  had  no  such  action. 

How  can  we  conciliate  these  apparently  contradictory 
facts?  As  previously  said,  carbonate  of  lime  seems  to 
have  a  more  noxious  action  on  the  vine  when  dissolved  in 
large  quantities  of  water.  The  rain  water,  which  is  always 
charged  with  carbonic  acid,  is  its  most  active  agent  of  disso- 
lution, by  infiltration  in  the  soil,  and  the  more  abundant  it 
is,  the  more  carbonate  of  lime — in  solution  as  bi-carbonate — 
will  there  be  at  the  disposal  of  the  plant,  and  consequently 
the  more  intense  the  chlorosis  will  be.  In  June  or  July, 
with  the  return  of  heat,  the  quantity  of  water  contained  in 
the  soil  diminishes;  a  great  quantity  of  bi-carbonate  of  lime 
becomes  insoluble  again,  and  the  chlorosis  disappears.* 

However,  chlorosis  does  not  seem  to  be  manifested  in 
direct  relation  with  the  percentage  of  water  in  the  soil 
estimated  by  weight,  as  is  usually  determined  in  physical 
and  mechanical  analysis  of  soils.  This  is  at  least  the  result 
of  Houdaille  and  Mazade  's  studies.  It  is  the  ratio  between 
the  quantity  of  water  contained  in  the  soil  and  the  volume 
of  the  empty  spaces  existing  between  the  particles  of  the 
soil  which  it  is  important  to  consider,  for  it  expresses  more 
accurately  the  state  of  saturation  of  the  soil  by  rain  water. 

One  can  then  easily  account  for  the  differences  shown  in 
the  green  parts  of  vines  planted  in  soils  containing  the 
same  percentage  of  lime  and  in  the  same  state.  It  is  evi- 
dently in  places  where  water  lies  that  vines  will  be  the  most 
yellow.  This  is  why  the  bottom  of  the  valleys  of  calcareous 
regions  (Bourgogne,  Charentes  Aude,  He>ault,)  and  places 
where  water  springs  naturally  (surroundings  of  Vichy), 
which  seem  at  first  appearance  very  favorable  to  American 

*  It  is  easy  to  follow  the  progress  of  the  dissolution  and  precipitation  of  the 
carbonate  of  lime  in  the  chalky  soils  of  the  Charentes.  These  soils,  grey  or 
black,  present  during  the  drought,  and,  to  a  certain  depth,  numerous  sinuous 
white  lines  entangled  like  a  network,  which  are  deposits  of  pure  carbonate  of 
lime  in  the  drives  formed  by  the  roots  of  the  vines.  After  heavy  rains  all  these 
lines  disappear  to  reappear  again  with  the  drought. 


ADAPTATION.  37 

vines,  are  in  reality  the  most  unfavorable,  while  the  sides 
of  the  hills,  which  drain  well  and  seem  poorer  and  more 
calcareous,  bear  less  chlorotic  vines. 

This  explains  also  the  beneficial  effect  of  drainage,  of  deep 
trenching,  and  of  all  operations  tending  to  diminish  the 
amount  of  water  in  calcareous  soils.* 

This  enables  us  to  interpret  the  results  obtained  by  Foex 
and  Millardet,  already  mentioned  above.  It  is  that  inde- 
pendently of  the  excellent  conditions  given  to  the  root 
growth  by  warm  soils,  soils  which  easily  become  hot  are 
generally  also  the  driest. 

Finally,  the  variation  in  intensity  of  chlorosis  with  the 
age  of  the  vine  and  the  season  are  not  due  to  any  other 
causes  than  those  above  studied.  But  can  one  explain  the 
way  in  which  they  are  produced?  How  is  it  that  the 
influence  of  lime  on  the  young  plant  does  not  manifest 
itself  in  the  spring  of  the  first  year  after  planting  out?  It 
is  that  at  the  start  the  vine  cutting  or  rootling  mainly 
lives  upon  reserve  matters  accumulated  in  its  tissues  and 
the  living  cells,  still  almost  normally  constituted,  resist 
longer  the  persistent  action  of  carbonate  of  lime.  But  the 
latter  supervenes  eventually,  and  in  September  the  leaves 
become  yellow,  and,  working  under  difficulties,  do  not  ac- 
cumulate in  the  tissues  of  the  trunk  and  root  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  reserve  matters.  The  following  spring,  the  first 
development  takes  place  with  the  aid  of  this  small  quantity 
of  reserve  matters:  hence,  a  more  intense  yellowing,  which 
is,  so  to  speak,  the  evolution  of  that  of  the  previous  year. 
The  lime  having  at  this  moment,  for  reasons  we  have 
already  made  clear,  a  very  great  action,  the  yellow  colour 
becomes  more  accentuated.  Then  with  the  fine  weather, 
during  June  and  July,  a  disappearance  of  the  humidity  of 
the  soil  places  the  vine  in  better  condition  for  vegetation; 
the  green  colour  returns,  the  leaves  regain  their  normal  con- 
dition, and  assimilate  and  elaborate  the  reserve  matters.  In 
the  spring  of  the  following  year,  the  active  cells,  well  con 
stituted  owing  to  the  reserve  matters  which  are  in  greater 
proportion  than  in  the  previous  year,  resist  longer  the 
effect  of  the  carbonate  of  lime.  That  is  why  chlorosis  is  less 

*  If  chlorosis  has  been  attributed  to  humidity  and  compactness  of  soil,  it  is 
because  one  had  not  been  able  to  distinguish  between  clay  and  clay-calcareous, 
or  marly  soils.  In  the  first,  chlorosis  never  occurs;  in  the  two  second,  chlorosis 
is  due  to  lime,  the  effect  of  which  is  increased  by  the  water  contained  in  such 
soils 


38  AMERICAN  VINES. 

intense,  or  at  least  of  shorter  duration,  the  third  year  t'.ian 
it  was  in  the  second 

Maturation  therefore  takes  place  under  better  conditions 
and  during  a  longer  time;  also,  at  the  fourth  year,  and 
for  the  same  reasons  as  previously  given,  the  yellow  colour 
is  less  marked,  if  it  has  not  totally  disappeared. 

Chlorosis  and  Mildew. — All  causes  placing  an  obstacle  in 
the  normal  functions  of  the  cells  of  the  vine  hinder  the 
formation  and  accumulation  of  reserve  matters,  and  there- 
fore the  subsequent  development  of  the  vine.  An  increase 
of  chlorosis  results.  Mildew,  by  prematurely  causing  the 
leaves  to  fall,  acts  in  this  manner,  as  was  apparent  enough 
in  the  years  1883,  1885,  and  1886,  when  the  chlorosis  was 
very  intense,  and  the  mildew,  not  yet  combated  with  cupric 
salts,  had  exceptional  gravity. 

Chlorosis  and  Phylloxera. — Phylloxera  acts  in  the  same 
way,  hindering  the  growth  of  the  vine  by  the  lesions  it 
determines  on  the  roots.  A  marked  weakness  soon  becomes 
apparent,  and,  under  the  circumstances,  it  is  less  resistant  to 
the  carbonate  of  lime.  Everybody  has  seen  phylloxerated 
vines  becoming  intensely  yellow  in  calcareous  soils  (never  in 
any  other  soils)  before  succumbing.  The  phylloxera,  by 
weakening  the  vine,  renders  it  more  sensitive  to  the  action 
of  carbonate  of  lime;  their  effects  however  accumulate,  and 
this  is  why  vines  resist  the  phylloxera  less  in  calcareous 
soils  than  in  clay-siliceous  soil. 

The  same  phenomena  take  place  with  the  American  vines 
not  absolutely  resistant,  but  to  a  lesser  extent.  The  non- 
success  of  many  plantations  made  with  American  vines  must 
be  attributed  to  the  simultaneous  action  of  phylloxera  and 
soil;  in  a  word,  phylloxera  diminishes  the  facility  of  adap- 
tation to  soil  of  American  vines  which  are  not  very  resistant. 
Consequently,  the  less  resistant  American  vines  should  always 
be  planted  in  soils  which  are  the  least  noxious  to  them. 

The  lesions  due  to  the  white  grub  or  any  other  parasite 
attacking  the  roots  is  attended  with  the  same  consequences. 

Chlorosis  and  Grafting. — Grafting  results  in  a  relative 
diminution  of  the  vigour  of  the  vine  (we  will  later  on  ex- 
plain the  reasons  why),  as  well  as  its  resistance  to  phylloxera, 
and  also  induces  it  to  become  yellow.  Every  one  has  noticed 
this.  But  this  weakening  effect  is  only  produced  when  the 
species  or  varieties  grafted  differ  from  each  other.  In  very 
calcareous  soils,  the  Folle-Blanche  grafted  on  its  own  roots 


ADAPTATION.  39 

does  not  become  more  yellow  than  when  growing  tmgrafted 
on  its  own  roots,  but  when  grafted  on  Riparia,  Solonis 
Rupestris,  etc.,  it  becomes  withered,  distorted,  and  dies.  In 
the  same  way  different  stocks  such  as  Riparia,  Rupestris, 
Solonis,  Lenoir,  etc.,  may  remain  almost  green  and  develop 
normally  as  long  as  they  are  growing  on  their  own  roots, 
but  when  grafted  they  very  quickly  succumb. 

The  weakening  following  grafting  is  not  therefore  the 
result  of  the  operation  of  grafting  itself;  it  results  only 
from  internal  and  external  differences,  or  to  be  more  exact 
from  vital  differences  existing  between  stock  and  scion, 
or  as  it  is  called  from  the  want  of  affinity  between  the  varieties 
or  species  grafted.  The  swelling  often  existing  at  the 
knitting  point  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  weakening  of 
grafted  vines,  neither  has  the  knitting  itself.  No  doubt  a 
plant  badly  knitted,  when  placed  in  unsuitable  conditions  for 
growth,  will  become  yellow  quicker  than  a  well-knitted  plant 
(the  chlorotic  plants  existing  sometimes  disseminated  here 
and  there  in  very  green  vineyards,  are  almost  always  grafts 
badly  knitted);  but  the  perfection  of  the  knitting  has  not 
the  importance  attributed  to  it,  from  the  point  of  view  of  its 
action  on  the  change  of  colour  of  the  leaves. 

An  imperfect  knitting  may  be  compared  to  a  wound  on  the 
trunk  of  a  vine ;  it  has  equal,  but  not  greater  importance. 

We  have  shown  that  it  is  at  the  second  year  after  planting 
that  vines  are  most  chlorotic.  It  is  just  at  that  time 
that  grafting  on  the  growing  plant  is  performed.  The 
weak  state  resulting  from  the  want  of  adaptation  to  the  soil, 
which  is  at  its  maximum  then,  is  still  increased  by  the 
weakening  effect  of  the  grafting.  Grafting  on  the  growing 
plant  takes  place  therefore  under  more  unsuitable  conditions 
from  this  point  of  view;  that  is  to  say  when  the  stock  seems 
to  suffer  most  from  the  presence  of  limestone.  It  is  not  a 
very  serious  trouble  in  siliceous-clay  soils,  but  in  soils  rich 
in  lime  it  is  certainly  so.  We  should  therefore  graft  on  the 
growing  stock  when  it  suffers  least  from  the  operation,  that 
is  to  say,  at  the  third  or  fourth  year,  when  the  plant  has  re- 
gained its  normal  green  colour.  This  method  has  been  followed 
in  many  vineyards  of  the  south  of  France  and  the  Charentes, 
and  everywhere  the  results  have  been  most  satisfactory. 

We  may  obtain  the  same  result  by  grafting  the  cutting 
before  planting  out.  A  well-knitted  plant,  well  rooted  pre- 
viously in  the  nursery,  may  become  yellow  when  planted  out 


4O  AMERICAN  VINES. 

in  a  calcareous  soil,  and  perhaps  a  little  more  so  than  the 
same  stock  on  its  own  roots,  but  certainly  less  than  the  stock 
grafted  when  growing  on  its  own  roots,  for  the  disturbance 
which  occurs  directly  after  grafting  does  not  exist  in  this 
case,  as  it  took  place  when  the  plant  was  in  the  nursery,  and 
for  this  reason  under  conditions  which  attenuated  its  effect 
on  account  of  the  perfect  suitability  of  the  nursery  soil  to 
the  young  plants.  This  has  been  noticed  by  many  vine- 
growers  of  the  Charentes,  Gironde,  Bourgogne,  etc.,  who 
observed  that  vineyards  planted  out  with  previously  knitted 
and  rooted  cuttings  never  become  as  yellow  as  those  of  the 
same  age  grafted  when  growing. 

Chlorosis  and  Ploughing. — Every  one  has  noticed  that  in 
certain  soils  vines  become  yellow,  especially  in  spring  after 
deep  ploughing.  It  has  also  been  noticed  that  in  the  same 
vineyard  a  ploughed  part  becomes  more  yellow  than  another 
part  not  ploughed.  This  fact  is  very  frequently  noticed  in 
the  Charentes,  Corbieres,  and  Auvergne.  What  is  the 
reason  for  this?  It  is  that  deep  ploughing,  when  the  vine 
has  already  commenced  to  grow,  suppresses  the  roots  grow- 
ing in  the  surface  soil,  that  is  to  say,  in  the  least  calcareous 
portions.  In  addition  to  the  ill  effects  produced  by  the 
suppression  of  a  part  of  the  absorbing  organs  of  the  plant, 
it  forces  it  to  live  for  a  certain  time — and  that  during  the 
period  when  chlorosis  has  the  greatest  effect — with  its  deep 
roots  penetrating  the  calcareous  layers  of  soil.  Superficial 
ploughing  is,  therefore,  indicated  for  soils  of  this  nature. 

We  have  shown  that  humidity,  compactness,  and  sourness 
of  soil,  if  alone  or  combined  do  not  constitute  excellent  con- 
ditions for  the  development  of  the  vine,  but  are  not  a  great 
obstacle  to  its  culture,  and  that  they  are  not  the  cause  of 
chlorosis;  that  drought,  lack  of  light,  heat,  defective  colora- 
tion of  the  surface  of  the  soil,  aeration,  grafting,  phylloxera, 
etc.,  are  not  the  cause  of  it  either.  Carbonate  of  lime,  alone, 
causes  the  vine,  whether  American  or  European,  to  turn 
yellow,  and  its  action  is  always  more  pronounced  as  it  is  pre- 
sent in  a  greater  quantity  or  in  a  more  assimilable  form,  and 
may  be  increased  by  water,  which  dissolves  it  and  renders  it 
available  to  the  plant,  and  by  grafting,  phylloxera,  and  deep 
ploughing.  We  have  shown  on  the  contrary,  that  it  is 
diminished  by  artificial  drainage,  salts  of  iron,  etc.  We  will 
indicate,  when  speaking  of  culture,  the  important  conse- 
quences resulting  from  the  above  considerations. 


Or    THE 


CEPAGES.  41 


PART  II. 


CEPAGES.* 

It  is  not  our  intention  to  give  here  a  complete  monograph 
of  all  the  cepages;  we  will  only  further  develop  for  each 
what  has  been  already  stated  in  the  first  part  of  this  work, 
and  study  from  various  points  of  view  their  cultural  proper- 
ties, insisting  more  particularly  on  their  qualities  of  adapta- 
tion, resistance  to  phylloxera,  and  respective  value  for  the 
reconstitution  of  vineyards  according  to  circumstances. 

All  the  cepages  are  derived  from  one  or  several  species. 
Some  have  primordial  characters  which  are  transmissible  in 
a  greater  or  lesser  degree  to  their  descendants.  We  will 
examine  in  detail  the  properties  of  the  diverse  species  of 
vines,  so  as  to  deduct  the  cultural  value  of  their  varieties  or 
hybrids. 

With  this  object  we  will  study: — ist,  the  species  of  Amer- 
can  vines;  2nd,  the  species  of  Asiatic  vines;  3rd,  V. 
Vinifera,  from  which  all  the  European  varieties  are  derived; 
4th,  the  hybrids  between  American  vines  (Americo- 
Americans);  and  5th,  the  hybrids  between  American  vines 
and  V.  Vinifera  (Franco-Americans).** 

We  will  only  succinctly  indicate  the  ampelographic  char- 
acters of  the  species  or  hybrids,  in  order  to  be  enabled  to 
classify  and  distinguish  the  forms  of  superior  cultural  value. 
The  question  of  selection  of  forms  in  each  species  or  hybrids 
is  of  great  practical  value.  Their  distinction  is  difficult,  as 
it  only  rests  on  slightly  decided  characters,  but  which  must 
be  defined.  We  know,  for  example,  how  varied  the  forms  of 
Rupestris,  Riparia,  and  Berlandieri  are.  Among  them  many 
are  without  value.  Hence  it  is  useful  to  be  able  to  recognize 
those  which  should  be  selected  for  reconstitution  of  vine- 
yards. 

*  This  word  is  used  as  it  has  no  true  equivalent  in  the  English  language.  It  is 
usually  translated  by  va/rietir,  this,  however,  does  not  convey  the  real  meaning,  as  it 
may  be  applied  to  a  species,  variety,  variation,  hybrid,  or  metis. — (Trans.) 

**  Or  Vinif era-Americans.—  (Trans.) 


42  AMERICAN  VINES. 

L— SPECIES  OF  AMERICAN  VINES. 

America  is  the  part  of  the  world  which  possesses  the 
greatest  number  of  species  of  vines;  the  numerous  types 
derived  from  them  are  disseminated  in  all  situations  and  con- 
ditions. Eighteen  species  of  American  vines,  at  least,  are 
known,  while  only  one  exists  in  Europe,  and  eleven  in  Asia. 
The  species  from  America  alone  resist  more  or.  less  the 
attacks  of  phylloxera,  and  this  resistance  is  probably  the 
result  of  natural  selection  determined  by  the  action  of  the 
parasite  itself.  This  natural  selection  is,  therefore,  a  guar- 
antee of  the  permanence  of  the  resistance  acquired  by  each 
of  them. 

Amongst  the  eighteen  species  of  American  vines,  a  few 
only  are  of  cultural  value  for  our  vineyards.  It  is  not 
useless,  however,  to  know  them  all,  for  certain  species  of  no 
intrinsic  value  have  given,  by  direct  or  indirect  hybridization, 
c£pages  which  have  or  have  had  a  certain  reputation.  We 
will  study  the  species  of  American  vines  in  the  following 
order,  in  which  they  are  grouped  according  to  their  botanical 
characters : — 

Section  I.  Muscat!  inia  Planchon 

V.  Rotundifolia,  Michaux. 
V.  Munsoniana,  Simpson. 

Section  II.  Euvitis  Planchon. 
Series  1.  LABRUSC^. 

V.  Labrusca,  Linne. 
Series  2.  LABRUSCOIDE^E. 

V.  Californica,  Bentham. 

V  Caribaea,  de  Candolle. 

V.  Coriacas,  Schuttleworth. 

V.  Candicans,  Engelmann. 
Series  3.  yESTIVALES.  ' 

V.  Lincecumii,  Buckley. 

V.  Bicolor,  Leconte. 

V.  ^Estivalis,  Michaux. 
Series  4.  CINERASCENTES. 

V   Berlandieri  Planchon. 

V  Cordifolia,  Michaux 

V.  Cinerea,  Engelmann. 
Series  5.  RUPESTRES. 

V.  Rupestris,  Scheele. 

V.  Monticola,  Buckley. 

V.  Arizonica,  Engelmann 
Series  6.  RIPARLE. 

V.  Riparia,  Michaux. 

V.  Rubra,  Michaux. 


CEPAGES. 


43 


V.  ROTUNDIFOLIA. 

(a)  Description. — Stump  very  vigorous,   spreading  habit, 
trunk  very  strong,  branches  (Fig.  i)  bark  with  disseminated 
lenticels,     without     diaphragms,      of    a 

deep  shiny  grey,  tendrils  simple,  dis- 
continuous. Leaves  (Fig.  3)  small, 
pentagonal,  entire,  thick,  parchment- 
like,  apron  nil;  teeth  in  two  series, 
wide,  obliquely  directed;  green,  shiny 
and  glabrous  on  both  faces,  under-face 
lighter  in  colour.  Bunch  composed  of 
a  few  berries  maturing  successively; 
large,  spherical,  colour  yellowish- 
brown,  with  thick  skin  and  fleshy  pulp. 
Seeds  (Fig.  2)  large,  elongated,  flat- 
tened; chalaze  and  raphe  nil;  chalazic 
depression  surrounded  by  radiating 
striations  and  two  longitudinal  depres- 
sions. Roots  slender. 

(b)  Varieties. — The   variations   of   V. 
Rotundifolia  in   its   wild   state   are   not 
numerous;      they   exist   mainly   in   the 
colours    of    the    fruit,  which  are  black, 
pink,  or  white,  and  in  the  intensity  of 
the  tint  of  the  foliage.       The  varieties 
obtained    from    seedlings    in    America, 
such   as   Scuppernong,    Thomas,    Tender 
Pulp,    Mish,    Flowers,    have     the    same 
properties  of  adaptation  and  the  same 
cultural  value  as  the  pure  species. 

Hybrids  between  V.  Rotundifolia 
and  V.  Vinifera  have  been  tried,  and 
notwithstanding  the  strongly  accen- 
tuated botanical  differences  existing 
between  these  two  species,  some  curious 
forms  have  been  obtained. 

(c)  Adaptation     and     Culture. — The 
V.  Rotundifolia  is  limited,  in   America, 
to    the    southern    states   bordering    the 
Atlantic,  from    Florida    to    Virginia,    and 
in   the    centre   of     Texas.        It    lives    in 
deep,     siliceous,     very    rich    moist     soils. 
Great  heat    as    well   as    moisture   both  in  Figv; 


44 


AMERICAN  VINES. 


soil  and  atmosphere  are  necessary  to  its  development;  it  is 
only  found  in  the  rich  sandy  alluviums  on  the  banks  of 
rivers,  where  it  acquires  a  remarkable  growth. 
Trunks  measuring  from  3  to  4  1-2  feet  in  circum- 
ference are  not  rare  in  its  wild  state 

V.  Rotundifolia  grows  very  badly  in  France, 
except  in  the  mellow,  fresh,  deep,  and  fertile 
Fig.  2.— Seed  of   soils  of  the  south,  and  even  in  such  soils  its 
v.  Rotundifolia.   development   is  relatively  poor,    and   it  bears 
little  fruit.        In  arid  and  in  calcareous  soils  it  dies  very 
quickly.       However,    the    phylloxera   has   no   action   on 'it; 


Fig.  3. — Leaf  of  V.  Rotundifolia. 


CEPAGES.  45 

the  insect  has  never  been  observed  on  its  roots,  either 
in  France  or  America;  its  resistance  may  therefore  be 
expressed  by  19.5.  Cryptogamic  diseases  (Oi'dium,  Mildew, 
Black  Rot)  are  rare  and  without  action  on  its  leaves  or 
fruit;  its  roots  are  not  affected  by  stagnant  or  brackish 
water,  nor  by  pourridte.* 

This  species  is  very  difficult  to  grow  from  cuttings.  The 
success  of  a  few  grafts  of  V.  Vinifera  on  it  are  mentioned  as 
exceptions,  which  may  be  explained  by  the  morphological  and 
physiological  similarities  existing  between  the  V.  Rotundi- 
folia  and  the  Ampelopsis. 

On  account  of  its  adaptation  to  deep,  rich,  fresh  siliceous 
soil,  to  warm  moist  climates,  and  its  difficulty  of  striking 
from  cuttings,  of  its  slight  affinity  to  grafting  with  European 
vines,  and  its  poor  productivity,  the  V.  Rotundifolia  is  a 
valueless  species  for  the  reconstitution  of  vineyards;  the 
same  applies  to  the  forms  derived  from  it. 

V.  MUNSONIANA. 

The  V.  Munsoniana  is  a  new  species,  which  was  only 
introduced  in  France  in  1887,  where  it  succeeds  even  less 
than  V.  Rotundifolia.  It  originates  from  the  swampy  dis- 
tricts, the  tropical  climate,  and  the  very  fertile  siliceous 
soils  of  Florida. 

The  few  vines  which  were  planted  in  1888  at  the  School 
of    Agriculture,    Montpellier,    died   two    years    after.      This 
species   belongs   to   the   same   botanical   group 
as    the    V.    Rotundifolia,  from  which  it  is  dis- 
tinguished  by   its   vegetation   being   generally 
more  slender,  by  its   bunches   composed  of   a 
great    number    of    berries,    which    are    small  pig.  4._seed  of 
instead    of    large,    by    its    very    small  seeds   v  Munsoniana. 
(Fig.  4);    the  teeth  of  its  leaves  are  straight  instead  of  being 
convex  on  the  sides,  and  are  normal  to  the  limb,  instead  of 
being  disposed  obliquely. 

V.  LABRUSCA. 

(a)  Description. — Stump,  vigorous;  habit,  spreading; 
trunk,  strong;  canes  rugose,  with  numerous  thick  hairs; 
tendrils  continuous  and  opposite  each  leaf  (Fig.  5),  contrary 

*  A  cryptogamic  disease,  attacking  both  European  and  American  vines  and  caused 
by  the  development  of  different  fungi  [Deinatophora  nnatrix  (R  Hartig),  Agarwus 
Melleus  (L.),  Rottef*  hypogcea  (Thum.  and  Pass.)]  often  taken  for  ordinary  root 
rot.— (Trans.) 


AMERICAN  VINES. 


to  all  other  species  which  have  discontinuous  or  intermittent 
tendrils  (Fig.  6).     Leaves   (Fig.   7),  large,  orbicular,  entire, 


Fig.  5. — Shoot  of  V.  Labrusca,  with  continuous  Fig.  6. — Shoot  with  discontinuous 

tendrils.  tendrils. 


CEPAGES. 


47 


bubbly;     petiolar    sinus,    deep;     upper-face    bright    green, 
slightly  shiny;    under-face  covered  with  a  whitish  or  golden 


Fig.  7.— Leaf  of  V.  Labrusca. 

yellow  felty  tomentum.  Bunch  medium,  ,with  berries  above 
the  average  size;  colour,  violet  black;  pulp,  fleshy ;  /strong 
foxy  taste.  Seeds  (Fig.  8)  large,  thick  set,  short  beak;  cha- 
laze  and  raphe  nil;  replaced  by  a  very  marked 
circular  depression.  Roots,  thick  and  fleshy. 

(b)  Varieties.— The  wild  forms  of  V.  Labrusca 
are  very  varied,  but  on  account  of  their  small 
cultural    interest   we   will  not   study   them  at  Fig.  s 
length;    but  will  note,  however,  that   some  of     v.  Labrusca: 
them  have  a  close  botanical  analogy  with  the  Asiatic  species 
of  vines. 


48  AMERICAN  VINES. 

The  cultivated  forms,  derived  from  the  wild  types  of  V. 
Labrusca,  are  numerous;  we  will  mention  amongst  them 
the  Concord  and  seedlings  resulting  from  it:  Early  Victor, 
Martha,  Moore's  Early,  Niagara,  Pocklington,  Black  Hawk, 
Cottage,  Lady,  Mason  Seedling,  and  the  Isabella,  the 
American  vine  first  introduced  into  France  and  its  seedlings : 
Prentiss,  Israella,  Eureka,  Union  Village,  and  again  Hart- 
ford Prolific,  and  Ives  Seedling,  which  is  a  seedling  of  the 
latter,  Belvidere,  Alexander,  Arrot,  Maxatawney,  North 
Carolina,  Northern  Muscadine,  Perkins,  Rebecca,  Rentz, 
Telegraph,  Venango,  Vergeness,  etc. 

The  botanical  and  cultural  characters  of  the  V.  Labrusca 
are  generally  transmitted,  in  a  very  accentuated  form,  to  the 
cepages  derived  from  it.  They  all  have  very  large  fruit, 
with  fleshy  pulp,  strong  foxy  taste;  their  resistance  to 
phylloxera  is  very  inferior,  similar  to  that  of  the  wild  types 
of  this  species.  We  shall  study  their  power  of  adaptation, 
but  on  account  of  the  few  essential  defects  above  mentioned 
the  numerous  cepages  derived  from  seeds  of  V.  Labrusca 
and  those  which  could  be  derived  later  on  are  of  no  value 
whatever  for  European  vineyards. 

(c)  Adaptation  and  Culture. — The  V.  Labrusca,  and  its 
diverse  varieties  are  the  most  sensitive  to  phylloxera  of  all 
the  species  of  American  vines;  its  resistance  may  be 
expressed  by  5,  the  maximum  resistance  or  absolute 
immunity  being  20.  However,  when  the  soils  are  not  too 
calcareous  and  the  conditions  very  favorable  to  the 
development  of  this  species,  its  resistance  is  sufficient  to 
allow  it  to  retain  its  vigour,  especially  in  cold  regions  where 
the  insect  has  less  action.  The  hotter  and  drier  a  climate  is, 
and  the  stronger  the  development  of  the  phylloxera,  the  more 
difficult  adaptation  becomes.  These  facts  are  corroborated 
by  what  takes  place  in  America  as  well  as  France,  and  are 
another  proof  of  what  we  stated  in  the  first  part  of  this 
work. 

The  V.  Labrusca  grows  more  particularly  in  the  cold 
regions  of  North  America.  It  is  rare  in  the  south-east  of 
Canada,  and  only  begins  to  grow  freely  in  the  forests  of  New 
England,  but  it  is  more  abundant,  both  in  its  wild  and  culti- 
vated state,  in  the  eastern  states  bordering  the  Atlantic. 

The  V.  Labrusca  not  only  requires  a  very  special  soil  to 
be  vigorous,  but  even  requires  it  to  live  at  all,  and  more  so 
when  cultivated  in  warm  regions  such  as  Virginia,  Missouri, 


CEPAGES.  49 

and  Texas.  The  soils  where  this  species  grows  naturally 
and  those  where  its  varieties  are  cultivated  are  sandy,  or  red, 
and  siliceous,  often  resulting  from  the  disintegration  of 
granitic  rocks.  Further,  the  soils  of  New  Jersey  and  those 
of  the  Islands  in  the  neighborhood  of  New  York  are  consti- 
tuted of  fine,  very  deep,  fresh,  and  fertile  sands;  those  of 
Maryland  are  red,  fine,  and  very  moist  sands.  In  Virginia 
and  Pennsylvania,  etc.,  this  species  is  limited  to  very  rich 
granitic  soils,  and  grows  only  in  places  where  they  are  fresh 
and  moist.  In  all  these  soils  the  V.  Labrusca  is  very  vig- 
orous, although  phylloxera  produces  nodosities  and  tuber- 
osities  on  its  roots. 

The  same  facts  have  been  noticed  in  Europe.  It  is  exclu- 
sively in  sandy  fertile,  deep,  and  fresh  alluvial  sands  that 
the  Concord  and  Isabella  have  proved  vigorous  and  resistant ; 
it  is  mostly  in  a  few  red  and  rich  siliceous  soils  of  the  alpine 
diluvium  that  the  Concord  has  maintained  its  vigour,  as  well 
as  in  the  partly  submerged  and  non-calcareous  soils  of  the 
northern  regions,  that  is  to  say,  in  surroundings  where  phyl- 
loxera has  less  effect. 

When  the  V.  Labrusca  and  its  varieties  are  cultivated  in 
other  than  sandy,  granitic,  clay -siliceous,  or  alluvial  soils, 
they  die  under  the  action  of  phylloxera,  in  America  as  well 
as  France ;  on  account  of  its  large  roots  this  species  thrives 
in  compact  but  very  fertile  and  rich  soils.  Further,  in  cal- 
careous soils  the  different  forms  of  V.  Labrusca  rapidly 
become  chlorotic  and  disappear  even  quicker  than  the  Euro- 
pean vines  on  account  of  the  combined  action  of  both  soil 
and  phylloxera. 

These  facts  have  been  noticed  since  the  beginning  of  re- 
constitution  with  American  vines  in  the  south  of  France 
(limestone  and  yellow  marls  of  the  Molasse)  and  in  the 
Charentes  (limestones  of  the  Cretaceous  period).  It  is  the 
same  in  America.  In  the  yellow,  marly  soils  surrounding  the 
great  lakes  (Sandusky)  the  V.  Labrusca  becomes  chlorotic  and 
dies  quickly.  In  the  south,  in  Texas  for  example,  where  the 
phylloxera  has  a  still  greater  power  on  chlorotic  plants  in 
calcareous  soils,  the  culture  of  the  V.  Labrusca  is  impossible 
in  the  black,  often  very  rich,  deep  and  compact,  but  calcareous 
soils  surmounting  the  chalky  subsoil.  We  are  obliged, 
in  order  to  maintain  varieties  of  V.  Labrusca  in  the  more 
fertile  soils,  to  layer  each  year  (as  is  done  in  the  Champagne) 
the  canes  of  the  preceding  year.  The  maintenance  of  the 


50  AMERICAN  VINES. 

varieties  of  V.  Labrusca  may  be  due,  in  this  case,  to  the 
superficial  layer  of  soil  being  only  slightly  calcareous  and  to 
the  layering  developing  surface  roots,  which,  for  a  certain 
time  at  least,  live  in  that  superficial  layer,  and  also  to  the 
young  roots  replacing  those  destroyed  by  the  phylloxera.  In 
slightly  calcareous,  compact  and  rich  soils,  these  varieties 
are  grafted  on  Taylor.  We  shall  see  that  its  properties  of 
adaptation  and  resistance  are  transmitted  to  its  hybrids 
which  are,  therefore,  very  sensitive  to  chlorosis  and  phyl- 
loxera. 

The  V.  Labrusca  is,  therefore,  of  no  value  for  re  constitution 
of  European  vineyards.  It  roots  freely  from  cuttings,  as 
applies  to  all  the  species  from  the  north  of  America,  and 
the  graft  knits  well  with  European  vines;  it  resists  attacks 
of  oidium  and  mildew  well,  but  its  fruit  is  very  sensitive  to 
black  rot,  and  its  roots  to  pourridie. 

V.  CALIFORNICA. 

(a)  Description. — Stump  very  vigorous,  trunk  very  strong; 
habit,   creeping;  wood  of  the  year  deep  greyish -brown,  ten- 
drils discontinuous.     Leaves  (Fig.  9)  large,  entire,  obicular, 
as  wide  as  long;     petiolar  sinus  widely  open;     limb,  thin, 
bright  green  on  the  upper-face,  whitish -green  tomentose  on 
under-face;    teeth  acute,  in  two  series.       Bunch  long,  small; 
berries  small,  spherical,  of  a  deep  violet  black  colour,  clean 
taste.     Seeds  (Fig.  i o)  small,  distended;  beak  blunt;  chalaze 
oval,  terminating  level  with  the  position  of  the  raphe  (which 
is  absent).     Roots  rather  large. 

(b)  Varieties. — The  variations  in  form   of  V.   Californica 
are  excessively  numerous ;  certain  varieties  have  very  marked 
characters,  such  as  those  growing  in  the  dry  sands  of  the 
south   of   California,   which    T.    V.    Munson   regarded   as   a 
species  and  named  V.  Girdiana.       These  forms  often  have 
lobed  leaves,  without  teeth,  and  thick,  short ,  stiff  hair  on  the 
under-face.     We  also  meet  with  variations  differing  from  the 
main  type  in  other  ways,  such  are  the  forms  with  very  large, 
thin,  entire  leaves,  with  acute  teeth,  very  slightly  tomentose; 
these  are  the  most  vigorous,  forms.       These  morphological 
variations  are  almost  always  dependent  on  the  fertility  of 
the  soil,    but    as  they  do  not  present  any  interest  for  the  re- 
constitution  of  our  vineyards  it  is  of  no  advantage  to  discuss 
them. 


CEPAGES. 


(c)  Adaptation  and  Culture. — The  V.  Californica  is  limited 
to  California  and  the  south  of  Oregon;  it  is  one  of  the  most 
magnificent  vines  of  the  United  States  as  far  as  vigour  and 
vegetation  are  concerned.  But  it  only  attains  remarkable 


Fig.  9— Leaf  of  V.  Californica. 


52  AMERICAN  VINES. 

proportions  and  development  on  the  banks  of  rivers,  in  brown 
alluvial,  loose,  very  deep  and  fresh  soils,  or  in  pebbly  soils 
containing  only  felspar,  granitic,  or  siliceous  pebbles.  The 
forms  with  thick  leaves,  indented  and  tomentose  (Girdiana 
group),  live  in  siliceous  soils,  often  in  pure  dry  unfertile 
sands 

In   the   north   of   California    (especially   the 

counties     of     Napa     and     Sonoma)     the     V. 

California    is    found    growing    in    calcareous 

soils,  and  in  reddish  or  blackish  rather 
Pig.  ro.— Seed  of  calcareous  marl.  In  these  soils  the  wild 

forms  of  the  species  become  rapidly 
chloratic.  The  Californians  who  tried  to  propagate  it  as 
grafting  stock  have  been  compelled  to  limit  it  to  sandy,  rich 
and  fresh  alluvials.  This  species  is  almost  as  sensitive  to 
chlorosis  as  the  V.  Labrusca  In  chalky  soils  of  the 
Charentes,  it  rapidly  becomes  yellow,  and,  what  is  more,  its 
resistance  to  phylloxera  is  not  even  equal  to  that  of  the  V. 
Labrusca,  and  may  be  expressed  by  the  number  4. 

It  is  on  account  of  this  feeble  resistance  that  it  has  never 
been  cultivated  in  Europe,  where  it  only  exists  in  collections. 
It  roots  freely  from  cuttings,  and  knits  well  with  V.  Vini- 
fera;  but  its  leaves  are  very  liable  to  cryptogamic  diseases 

V.  CARIB^A.  * 

This  species  is  of  no  practical  interest;  it  lives  in  tropical 
America,  in  the  West  Indies,  the  warm  regions  of  Mexico, 
etc.  It  has  frequently  been  imported  into  France  and  cul- 
tivated in  collections,  but  has  never  thrived,  and  soon 
disappeared,  owing  to  the  unsuitable  climate.  Its  value  as 
far  as  adaptation  and  resistance  to  phylloxera  are  concerned 
has  never  been  studied. 

V.    CORIACEA. 

The  V.  Coriacea  is  like  the  V.  Caribaea,  of  no  practical 
cultural  value ;  it  is  limited  to  Florida,  where  it  grows  in  the 
same  soils  as  the  V.  Munsoniana,  in  the  very  rich,  generally 
swamp  soils,  of  the  Eocene  and  Quaternary  period.  It  was 
introduced  into  France  in  1887,  but  grows  badly  in  rather 
calcareous  soils,  without,  however,  becoming  yellow.  Its 
resistance  to  phylloxera  has  not  yet  been  ascertained,  but  it 
does  not  seem  to  be  superior  to  that  of  the  Mustang,  which 


CEPAGES. 


53 


the  V.  Coriacea  resembles  botanically,  and  in  having  large 
and  fleshy  roots.  It  differs  from  it  in  its  small  berries, 
its  leaves  (Fig.  n)  small  and  always  plane,  and  the 


Fig.  ii. — Leal  of  V.  Coriacea. 


54 


AMERICAN    VINES. 


Fig. 


.  12.  —  Seed  of 


white-yellowish  golden  colour  ol  its  tomen- 
tum,  which  is  less  woolly  and  less  fluffy  than 
that  of  the  Mustang,  the  seeds  (Fig  12) 
are  small,  with  both  chalaze  and  raphe 
prominent 


V.  CANDICANS. 

(a)  Description. — Stump  very  vigorous  habit  creeping, 
trunk  very  strong;  wood  of  the  year  deep  brown,  with  nu- 
merous patches  of  long  white  hair;  tendrils  discontinuous. 
Leaves  medium,  rather  large  (Fig.  13),  as  wide  as  long, 
-entire,  cordiform,  rounded,  sometimes  indented  and  lancinate 


Fig.    13. — Leaf  of  V.   Candicans. 


CEPAGES. 


55' 


(Fig.  14) ;  petiolar  sinus  shallow;  limb  thick,  umbrella  shaped *r 
upper-face  deep  green;  under-face  with  white,  thick,  felty 
tomentum.  Bunch  small,  irregular;  berries  large,  deep- 


Fig.  14. — Lancinate  Leaf  of  V.  Candicans. 

black  colour,  globular,  discoid,  pulpy,  very  harsh  taste- 
Seeds  (Fig.  15)  very  large,  beak  short;  chalaze  and  raphe 
rudimentary,  grooved  round  the  chalazic  depression.  Roots 
large  and  fleshy. 

(b)  Varieties. — The  variations  of,,  the  V.  Candicans  or  Mus- 
tang are  not  numerous ;  it  is  one  of  the  species  which  has,  in 
the  wild  state,  the  most  fixed  and  defined 
characters.  A  few  differences  of  secondary 
importance  sometimes  occur,  but  it  is- 
only  in  dimensions  of  the  leaves,  which 
vary  according  to  the  richness  of  the  soil. 
Fv.'candkans.°f  In  tne  rich  soils  on  the  banks  of  rivers- 


56  AMERICAN  VINES. 

the  Mustang  acquires  its  greatest  development.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  hybrids  of  this  species  are  very  numerous 
and  varied,  on  account  of  its  great  geographical  extension 
and  its  long  period  of  florescence. 

-.  _.(c)  Adaptation  and  Culture. — The  Mustang  is  the  most 
common  vine  in  the  south  of  the  United  States;  it  extends 
from  the  Arkansas  River  to  the  centre  of  Mexico;  it  tra- 
verses Arkansas,  the  Indian  territory,  a  part  of  Louisiana, 
and  Texas.  It  grows  in  the  same  regions  as  the  V.  Berlan- 
dieri,  but  over  a  more  extended  area;  the  variations  of  V. 
Candicans  are  more  numerous  than  those  of  the  latter 
species.  They  are  found,  like  the  V.  Cinerea  and  V.  Cordi- 
folia,  vigorous  and  in  great  number  in  the  "bottom  lands"  and 
on  the  banks' of  rivers;  under  these  conditions  the  trunk 
attains  a  circumference  of  35  inches. 

The  V.  Candicans,  however,  resists  drought  well;  it  some- 
times grows  on  the  sides  or  tops  of  hills  amongst  plants 
living  without  much  moisture,  but  then  it  is  not  vigorous, 
although  green,  and  the  types  met  with  under  these  circum- 
stances may  be  considered  exceptions  as  compared  with 
those  living  on  the  banks  of  rivers.  The  V.  Candicans 
is  a  species  belonging  to  hot  countries.  We  will  refer 
to  the  climate  and  regions  it  lives  in,  when  studying  the 
V.  Berlandieri. 

The  alluvial  river  banks  where  the  Mustang  is  generally 
found  are  soils  of  the  greatest  fertility.  But  it  also  exists  in 
special  soils,  sometimes  very  unfertile  and  often  very  com- 
pact; the  constitution  of  its  large  roots  is  in  correlation 
with  this  fact.  In  France,  for  instance,  the  few  types  exist- 
ing in  collections  grow  vigorously  in  blue  marl,  or  very  com- 
pact red  clay,  less  vigorously,  however,  than  in  fresh,  fertile 
soil  In  the  United  States,  near  Dallas,  it  has  an  immense 
power  of  vegetation  in  the  soils  called  by  the  Americans 
"black  waxy  lands  "  on  account  of  their  plasticity  and  inky- 
black  colour;  these  soils  are  very  clayey,  sour,  little  fertile, 
and  rest  on  a  compact  bank  of  cretaceous  limestone. 

The  Mustang,  however,  is  not  a  vine  peculiar  to  chalky 
soils.  It  rapidly  becomes  yellow  in  the  friable  chalks  sur- 
rounding Cognac  (France).  It  is  true  that  in  America  some 
types  only  slightly  vigorous  are  found  growing  on  cretaceous 
formations,  but  only  in  cases  where  the  black  clay  soil,  rich 
in  humus  which  covers  the  chalky  rock,  is  rather  abundant, 
particularly  on  hill-sides.  An  American  soil  where  the 


CEPAGES.  57 

Mustang  had  a  fine  development  had  the  following  percent- 
age composition  (analysis  due  to  Chauzit): — 

Clay  .  .  .  .  ..      25.37  per  cent. 

Sand  .  .  .  .  .  .     54 . 75        * 

Carbonate  of  lime  ..      18.00        " 

This  species,  therefore;  is  not  peculiar  to  calcareous  soils, 
and  its  hybrids,  when  they  possess  its  characters  in  a  high 
degree — which  is  often  the  case — become  easily  yellow  in 
chalky  soils. 

Further,  the  Mustang  is  the  most  difficult  species  to  root 
from  cuttings  more  difficult  even  than  the  species  originat- 
ing from  the  warm  regions  of  the  United  States.  Its  resist- 
ance to  phylloxera,  which  may  be  represented  by  the  number 
15,  is  not  of  the  highest  degree.  Should  varieties  of  this 
species  be  found  to  root  freely  from  cuttings,  they  would 
require  to  be  tried  with  care  in  compact  soils,  for  which  they 
seem  indicated;  other  American  grafting-stocks  are  actually, 
at  least,  superior,  and  better  known  from  the  point  of  view 
of  their  adaptation.  Let  us  note  that  the  harsh  taste  of  the 
Mustang  is  constantly  transmitted  to  the  American  or 
Franco-American  hybrids  derived  from  it.  The  Mustang 
resists  cryptogamic  diseases  well  on  both  leaves  and  fruit, 
but  is  very  liable  to  pourridie*. 

V.  LINCECUMII. 

(a)  Description. — Stump    very    vigorous,    creeping   hrbit, 
trunk  strong;    wood  of  year  hazelnut  colour;    tendrils  dis- 
continous.     Leaves  (Fig.  16)  very  large,  almost  as  wide  as 
long,  orbicular,  entire  or  lobed  with  deep  sinuses;    petiolar 
sinus  very  deep,  with  tangent  lips;    limb  thick  and  rugose; 
upper-face  deep  green;  under-face  glaucous.     Bunch  medium, 
berries  medium,  discoid,  skin  covered  with  bloom,  deep  red; 
disagreeable  taste.     Seeds  (Fig.  17)  large,  pear-shaped,  beak 
detached;   chalaze  wide,    orbicular;   raphe    filiform.       Roots 
of  medium  strength,  hard  and  long. 

(b)  Varieties. — The     V.    Lincecumii    or     V.    Linsecomii, 
AZstivalis  with  large  berries,  Post  Oak,  is   represented  by  a 
great  number  of  types  in  its  wild  state.    As  it  is  fructiferous 
and  resistant  to  cryptogamic  diseases,  the  Americans  tried  to 
select  it  and  create  new  varieties  from  seeds.     H.  Jaeger  has 
isolated  over  100  pure  forms  of  this  species,  and  obtained 
many    hybrids    between    it    and    Rupestris.       The    Neosho 


AMERICAN  VINES. 


<  Racine,    Far    West)    is    the     oldest    form    we    possess    in 
France.      The  Pulliat,  obtained  by  G.   Foex  from  seeds  of 


Fig.  1 6. — Leaf  of  V.  Lincecumii. 

"Neosho,  is  again  a  pure  form  of  the  species;  more  fructiferous 
.and  of  a  cleaner  taste  than  the  Neosho. 

But  the  ripening  of  all  these  forms  is  very  late ;  their  pro- 
ductivity may  be  compared  to  that  of  the 
Gamay,  and  they  ripen  even  later  than  the 
Carignane.  The  most  fructiferous  forms 
obtained  by  H.  Jaeger  are  No.  13  and 
No  43,  but  all  retain  a  certain  harsh  taste 
in  the  fruit,  persisting  even  in  the  resulting 
wine;  they  are  of  no  value  as  direct  producers.  Their  resist- 
ance does  not  reach  that  of  Solonis,  and  may  be  designated 
by  the  number  14;  the  cuttings  root  badly,  although  better 
than  those  of  V.  Candicans. 

i "  (c)  Adaptation  and  Culture. — The  V.  Lincecumii  is  limited 
:in  its  geographical  distribution;   it  grows  in  countries  where 


Fig.  17.— Seed  of 
V.  Lince 


Lincecumii. 


CEPAGES.  59 

a  high  temperature  is  reached  in  summer,  especially  in  the 
extreme  south-west  of  Missouri,  in  Arkansas,  Indian  Terri- 
tory, north-west  of  Louisiana,  and  north-east  of  Texas.  We 
will  note  that  it  is  mostly  found  in  the  Rupestris  region. 
The  V.  Lincecumii  generally  grows  in  the  red  siliceous , 
very  deep  and  rich  soils  of  river  banks;  on  the  hills,  it  only 
lives  in  soils  composed  of  siliceous  or  granitic  pebbles,  mixed 
with  reddish  clay,  constituting  a  dry  medium,  but  always. 
fairly  fertile  and  compact.  As  a  graft -bearer  it  is  not 
superior  to  the  Rupestris  for  the  above-mentioned  soils,  and 
not  superior  to  the  Riparia  for  the  rich  deep  soils,  and,  as 
we  have  said,  its  resistance  to  phylloxera  is  inferior  to  that 
of  these  two  species.  It  is  a  species  which  succeeds  even 
less  in  calcareous  soils  than  the  Rupestris ;  it  has  never  been 
found  growing  in  such  soils,  even  accidently,  in  America. 
In  France  it  only  grows  well  in  soils  containing  a  small 
amount  of  limestone,  slightly  compact  and  rich;  in  white 
limestone  soils  it  rapidly  turns  yellow. 

V.   BICOLOR. 

V.  Bicolor  is  a  species  intermediate  in  its  character,  be- 
tween V.  Lincecumii  and  V.  ^Estivalis ;  it  only  differs  from 
the  latter  in  the  smaller  indentations  of  its  leaves,  which  are 
glaucous  green  and  glabrous  on  the  under-face,  by  its  bunch 
small andclose  set,  and  above  all  by  its  small  seeds  (Fig.iS). 
It  is  peculiar  to  the  north-east  of  the  United  States,  especially 
in  Michigan,  Indiana,  and  New  York  state.  It  only  grows 
in  soils  derived  from  old  formations,  red  siliceous  and  fertile 
(Carboniferous,  Silurian,  Devonian,  etc.).  The  pure  forms  of 
this  species,  only  recently  imported  into 
France,  have,  even  in  good  soils,  a  com- 
paratively small  development.  Its  resist- 
ance to  phylloxera  has  not  yet  been 
ascerta  ned,  but  seems  equal  to  that  of  the  Fig.  l8._l Seed  of 
best  ^Estivalis  forms.  This  species  does  v-  Bicolor. 
not  succeed  in  chalky  soils  and  marl,  as  applies  also  to- 
the  latter.  In  a  word,  the  V.  Bicolor  is  of  no  practical 
interest  for  reconstitution. 

V.  ^ESTIVALIS. 

(a)   Description. — Stump   vigorous,   creeping  habit,   trunk 
strong;    wood  of  the  year  deep  wine  colour,  with  bloom  at. 


60  AMERICAN  VINES. 

the  nodes;  tendrils  discontinuous ;  leaves  carmine  when  young, 
medium,  sub-orbicular,  entire  or  lobed;  petiolar  sinus  deep; 
upper-face  dull  deep  green,  under-face  with  patches  of  cobweb- 
by rust-coloured  hair.  Bunch  medium;  berry  sub-medium, 
spherical,  vinous  black;  skin  covered  with  bloom;  coloured 
juice;  taste  clean.  Seeds  (Fig.  19)  sub-medium;  beak  short; 
chalaze  circular,  prominent ;  raphe  limited  by  a  well-defined  rib 
passing  round  the  base  of  the  seed.  Roots  hard,  rather  large. 

(b)  Varieties. — It  has  been  considered  for  a  long  time,  and 
many  authors  still  consider,  that  certain  cultivated  vines  of 
the    United    States,  such    as    Cynthiana,    Norton's  Virginia, 
Baxter,    Herbemont,    Hermann,    Cunningham,    etc.,    are    pure 
forms  of  the  V.  ^Estivalis,  which  they  resemble  more  or  less 

in     their     characters  of    adaptation.       The 
researches  of  Millardet   seem  to  have  proved 
that   these    cepages,  which  have  the  charac- 
teristics     of     almost     pure   .^Estivalis,   are, 
however,    partially  hybridized   with   others. 
Fig- 1 9-— Seed  of     We   will   study   them    later   on.     This  also 
applies    to     other     c6pages,    which    T.    V. 
Munson  included,  with  some  of  those  above-mentioned,  in  a 
specific  section  under  the  name  of    V.  Bourquina,  Jacquez* 
for  instance. 

As  for  the  variations  of  the  wild  forms  of  the  species,  they 
are  of  no  interest.  Let  us  recognize,  however,  that  in  a 
general  way  the  thickening  of  the  leaves  increases  from  the 
north  to  the  south,  and,  inversely  to  what  often  takes  place, 
the  abundance  and  the  length  of  the  hair  diminishes  when 
one  passes  from  moist  rich  soils  to  poor  dry  soils,  where  the 
tomentum  becomes  at  the  same  time  stiffer. 

The  pure  forms  of  V.  ^stivalis  are  difficult  to  root  from 
cuttings,  and  sensitive  to  mildew  and  black-rot. 

(c)  Adaptation  and  Culture. — The  V.  ^Estivalis    predomi- 
nates in  the  centre  and  east-centre  of  the  United     States, 
from   New   England   to   Texas,   especially  in   Pennsylvania, 
Virginia,     and     Carolina;     it    is     also     found     represented 
by  a  small  number  of  types  in  Florida,   Louisiana,   and  even 
Mexico.       Consequently    the  V.   ^Estivalis  is  a  variety    for 
medium  climates.     The  temperature  in  the  regions  where  the 
species   is   most   widely    spread    drops  below — 25°    C. ;    the 
derived  forms  connected  with  this  species  can  therefore  be 
expected  to  resist  cold  (Herbemont,  Jacquez). 

*  Lenoir. 


CEPAGES  6l 

Wild  forms  rarely  grow  in  very  dry  soils,  they  have  never 
been  observed  in  swampy  low  lands.  They  predominate  in 
soils  of  old  formation  (granitic,  Silurian,  Devonian,  Cam- 
brian, carboniferous).  They  are  generally  pebbly  soils, 
strongly  red-coloured  siliceous;  sometimes  very  red  siliceous 
sands,  and  very  moist  This  species  is  very  much  affected 
by  limestone ;  it  is  one  of  the  most  sensitive  species  to  chalky 
limestone  and  white  marl. 

V.  ^Estivalis  in  its  pure  form  is  of  no  value  for  reconsti- 
tution;  the  types  multiplied  in  France  have  grown  (not 
vigorously)  in  red  siliceous  Alpine  diluvium.  Its  pure  forms 
have  a  fairly  great  resistance  to  phylloxera,  which  may  be 
designated  by  the  number  16. 

V.  BERLANDIERI. 

(a)  Description  (General  Characters}. — Stump  vigorous, 
of  creeping  habit,  trunk  medium;  wood  of  the  year 
dull,  with  a  few  patches  of  woolly  hair  on  the  summits  of  the 
young  shoots,  of  a  cinnamon-brown  grey  colour,  with  seven  very 
distinct  ribs;  tendrils  discontinuous.  Leaves,  young;  shining 
brownish  green;  adult;  medium,  rounded  pentagonal  shape, 
nearly  entire;  petiolar  sinus  deep,  with  convergent  lobes; 
scarcely  indented;  limb  thick,  wide  honeycomb  structure, 
folded  along  the  mid-rib  inwards,  margins  sometimes  curved 
inwards;  upper-face  dark-green  .  and  shining;  under-face 
lighter  green,  often  shining,  with  prominent  veins  covered 
with  short  hair.  Bunch  medium,  compact;  berries  small, 
very  firm,  spherical;  skin  black,  covered 
with  bloom.  Seeds  (Fig.  20)  medium,  squat; 
beak  short  and  strong;  chalaze  rounded, 
slightly  prominent,  tapering  to  a  scarcely 
protuberant  raphe.  Roots  running,  rather  Fig.  20.— Seed  of 
strong,  thick  and  fleshy. 

(6)  Varieties. — The  variations  of  forms  of  V.  Berlandieri 
are  very  numerous,  even  more  numerous  than  in  the  cases 
of  V.  Rupestris  and  V.  Riparia.  Between  them  there  exists 
considerable  differences,  especially  from  the  point  of  view  of 
their  vigour  and  adaptation,  and,  consequently  their  cultural 
value,  the  only  consideration  which  must  be  taken  into 
account.  These  variations  are  the  result  of  diverse  natural 
phenomena,  especially  of  their  dissemination  in  very  varied 
surroundings,  and  the  natural  selection  which  fixed  their 
characters  under  these  conditions.  There  are  other  variations 


62  AMERICAN  VINES. 

which  may  be  considered  as  individual  or  intrinsic,  and 
these  are  shown  in  the  various  groups  of  the  species  by  very 
marked  differences  of  vigour  in  the  same  groups.  Some  have 
a  feeble  development  which  is  a  fixed  individual  character, 
and  consequently  transmissible  by  cuttings;  these  must  be 
excluded  from  culture;  only  the  vigorous  forms  in  the 
various  groups  should  be  propagated.  Finally,  in  a  natural 
state,  other  individual  variations  (rather  than  varieties,  for 
they  are  not  always  reproduced  as  such  by  seed)  besides 
vigour,  facility  of  rooting  from  cuttings,  fertility,  are  seen, 
which  are  possessed  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  by  certain 
Berlandieri  types,  variations  which  may  be  maintained  by 
propagating  from  cuttings. 

Selection  is  necessary  and  indispensable  amongst  the 
various  forms  of  Berlandieri  which  have  been  introduced 
into  France  since  1887,  and  also  those  formerly  obtained  from 
seedlings.  Perhaps  it  is  premature,  but  in  any  case  not 
useless,  to  attempt  to  define  the  forms  that  have  been  intro- 
duced and  which  appear  to  possess  the  greatest  value.  As  a 
general  fact,  the  most  vigorous,  without  distinction  of  name, 
with  very  thick  leaves,  shining  on  both  faces,  with  the 
extremities  of  the  branches  slightly  tomentose,  with  golden- 
brown  young  leaves,  are  the  most  perfect;  these  are  the  char- 
acters of  forms  which,  in  the  wild  state,  grow  in  the  most, 
calcareous  soils. 

The  thickness  of  the  tomentum  divides  the  Berlandieri 
into  two  large  but  still  connected  groups,  for  the  hairs  are 
never  entirely  absent,  even  in  the  most  glabrous  forms.  The 
tomentose  Berlandieri  have  cobwebby  hairs,  especially  on  the 
young  branches,  on  the  principal  ribs,  and  numerous  stiff 
hairs  on  the  sub-ribs.  The  leaves  are  large,  10  to  12  cm. 
(4  to  5  inches),  dull  under-face,  goffered  structure,  some- 
times thin.  These  varieties  have  occasionally  cordiform 
leaves  recalling  V.  Cinerea,  of  which  they  are  without  doubt 
hybrids,  especially  when  the  upper-face  is  finely  goffered  and 
dull,  as  also  on  the  under  face.  All  these  tomentose  forms 
are  peculiar  to  the  rich  and  often  siliceous  soils,  little  cal- 
careous and  fresh,  on  the  banks  of  rivers.  Consequently 
they  have  no  value  for  chalky  soils.  We  will  not  attempt  to 
characterize  the  forms  of  this  group. 

The  less  tomentose  forms,  which  we  will  call,  for  distinc- 
tion, glabrous  Berlandieri,  have  smaller  leaves,  thicker, 
harder,  and  more  or  less  folded  inwards  along  the  mid-rib, 


CEPAGES.  63 

canes  dark-tinted,  with  darker  flutings:  sometimes  the  fluffy 
hairs  are  only  found  on  the  summits  of  young  branches;  the 
short  bushy  hairs  on  the  ribs  and  occasionally  on  the  sub- 
ribs  on  the  under-face  of  the  leaf  are  often  rather  scarce. 

In  the  second  group  of  glabrous  Berlandieri,  two  subdivi- 
sions may  again  be  established:  ist,  those  with  leaves  of  a 
dull  yellowish-grey  on  the  under-face,  comprising  the  least 
vigorous  and  least  recommendable  forms  of  Berlandieri; 
2nd,  those  with  very  thick  leaves,  dark-green  and  very 
shining  on  the  upper-face,  and  shining  yellowish  green  on  the 
under-face,  with  short  supple  hairs  on  the  ribs  and  sub-ribs. 
The  varieties  of  this  last  group  are  the  best  and  most 
vigorous  for  chalky  soils. 

Amongst  these  latter  we  will  only  indicate  a  certain 
number  of  forms;  other  better  forms  may,  perhaps,  be  iso- 
lated by  further  selection.  These  forms,  or  rather  groups  of 
forms,  have  recently  been  studied  and  characterized  in  an 
important  memoir  published  by  Marcel  Mazade  in  the  Revue 
de  Viticulture  (vol.  V.,  1896).  They  are  mostly  of  very  great 
vigour  and  a  real  value  for  reconstitution ;  their  development 
equals  that  of  the  best  varieties  of  Riparia.  Mazade  has 
isolated  and  selected  most  of  these  from  forms  introduced 
and  cultivated  in  various  French  vineyards.  Those  which 
appear  to  us  to  have  the  greatest  value  in  regard  to  their 
resistance  to  chlorosis  are  the  forms  belonging  to  group  No. 
2;  the  forms  in  groups  Nos.  i  and  3  are  very  vigorous  and 
of  very  great  value,  but  they  are,  perhaps,  a  little  inferior  to 
the  types  of  No.  2  (especially  the  Berlandieri  Millar  det). 

It  is  certain  that  an  elimination  will  be  carried  out  among 
the  diverse  forms  which  we  cite,  and  we  may  already  safely 
consider  the  Berlandieri  Millardet,  Berlandieri  Vialla,  and 
Berlandieri  Ecole  as  inferior  to  the  others  and  consequently 
not  worth  cultivation.  We  will  only  mention  the  Berlandieri 
Planchon,  Berlandieri  de  Gr asset,  Berlandieri  Bouisset, — 
forms  named  by  T.  V.  Munson,  which  are  hybrids  and  not 
pure  Berlandieris,  and  are  without  value  for  resistance  to 
chlorosis,  although  very  vigorous. 

Herewith  the  way  in  which  Mazade  subdivides  and  fixes' 
the  distinctive  character  of  the  forms  of  Berlandieri  actually 
known,  taking  into  account  the  general  characters  which  we 
have  given  for  the  species  and  which  are  common  to  all  the 
forms,  and  also  the  general  particularly  distinctive  characters 
for  the  whole  of  the  most  meritorious  Berlandieris. 


64 


AMERICAN  VINES 


GROUP  No.  i.  —  General  colour,  uniform  light-green; 
wood  light  (clear  rather  brilliant  hazel) ;  leaves  large, 
elongated,  lateral  sides  often  parallel,  often  rather  regularly 
folded  inwards  along  the  mid-rib,  sometimes  flat, 


Fig.  21. — Leaf  of  Berlandieri  Resseguier  No.  i. 

relatively  thin,  supple,  and  smooth;  extremities  of  the  shoots 
ashy  and  light  carmine ;  young  leaves  golden-yellow,  passing 
.gradually  to  the  definitive  tint;  petiolar  sinus  straight,  V 
shape;  group  very  slightly  tomentose. 

In  this  group  we  will  mention: — 

Berlandieri  Mazade. — Very  vigorous  form,  named  and 
multiplied  by  Malegue;  leaves  very  large,  young  leaves  very 
slight  carmine  tint,  the  shoots  and  young  leaves  the  least 
tomentose  of  the  group. 


CEPAGES. 


Fig.  22. — Leaf  of  Berlandieri  Daignere. 

Berlandieri  Resseguier  No.  i. — (Fig.  21.)  Having  char- 
acters corresponding  to  those  already  given  for  the  group ; 
very  vigorous  form,  with  thick  and  long  canes. 

Berlandieri  Daignere. — (Fig.  22.)  This  very  vigorous 
form,  like  the  preceding,  is  little  different  from  No.  i,  unless 
it  is  by  its  leaves,  which  are  slightly  re  volute  on  the  edges 
or  inside. 

Berlandieri  Millardet. — Form  isolated  and  named  by  T.  V. 
Munson.  This  group  of  Berlandieri  has  the  smallest  leaves 
and  most  carmine  budding;  the  leaves  are  rather  dull,  the 
petiolar  sinus  very  open,  and  the  wood  absolute  ashy-grey. 


66 


AMERICAN  VINES. 


Fig.  23. — Leaf  of  Berlandieri  Resseguier  No.  2. 

GROUP  No.  2. — General  colour  very  dark-green  and  very 
brilliant  (varnished)  appearance;  wood  hazel-grey  reddish, 
strongly  striated  and  excoriated;  leaves  dark-green,  brilliant, 
appearing  varnished  on  the  upper  face,  rounded,  thick, 
margin  largely  undulating;  often  folded  conically;  teeth 
very  blunt;  petiolar  sinus  lyre  or  U  shaped,  but  variable; 
apex  of  the  shoots  whitish,  slightly  carmine;  young  leaves 
bronze  violet-ashy  colour,  turning  to  a  real  bronze  and 
passing  suddenly  to  the  definitive  colour.  Forms  of  this 
group  rather  tomentose.  We  will  only  mention  amongst 
them  the  Berlandieri  Resseguier  No.  2  (Fig.  23),  which  is 
one  of  the  best  for  resisting  chlorosis,  and  the  Berlandieri 
Cristal,  which  is  a  form  of  great  value. 

GROUP  No.  3. — Leaves  very  large,  more  or  less  honey- 
combed in  structure  along  the  principal  ribs,  brilliant  on  both 
faces ;  ribs  always  reddish  at  the  point  of  insertion  on  the  upper- 
face  ;  this  colouration  is  prolonged  half-way  up  the  leaf ;  teeth 


CEPAGES. 


67 


Fig.  24.— Leaf  of  Berlandieri  Viala. 


very  blunt ;  petiolar  sinus  nearly  closed.  Amongst  them  we  wil I 
mention  as  one  of  the  most  vigorous,  selected  on  the  property  of 
Madame  Jules  Robin,  at  Saint-Meme,  near  Cognac,  the  Berlan- 
dieri de  Lafont  No.  9.  This  variety  is  of  considerable  vigour, 
and  in  resistance  to  chlorosis  is  second  to  no  other  variety. 

GROUP  No.  4. — Leaves  relatively  dull,  ribs  pale  green 
and  distinct  on  the  limb ;  indentations  rather  marked ;  fluffy 
hairs  rather  numerous  on  the  ribs  of  the  upper  face ;  budding 
yellowish  white  with  carmine  margin  rather  marked  on  the 
young  leaves;  wood  rather  red  for  a  Berlandieri;  this  last 
item  may  lead  to  a  belief  of  hybridization,  although  the 
leaves  have  the  general  characters  of  the  species.  The  Ber- 
landieri d'Angeac  belongs  to  this  group;  it  has  withstood,  in 
the  Charentes,  relatively  strong  calcareous  soils.  It  is  a 
very  vigorous  vine,  with  stout  wood,  and  is  a  good  grafting 
stock  in  soils  very  liable  to  cause  chlorosis. 


AMERICAN  VINES 


Fig.  25. — Leaf  of  Berlandieri  Ecole. 

GROUP  No.  5. — Adult  leaves  very  large,  rounded,  uneven, 
thick,  sinus  nearly  closed,  young  leaves  extremely  bronzed 
and  brilliant.  These  forms  are  well  characterized.  Amongst 
them  we  mention  the  Berlandieri  Viola  (Fig.  24),  a  form 
named  and  selected  by  T.  V.  Munson  amongst  the  Berlan- 
dieris  of  the  most  chalky  soils  of  Texas ;  it  is  less  vigorous  than 
those  of  Groups  Nos.  i  2,  and  3.  Certain  forms  of  this  group 
actually  being  studied  in  the  Charentes  seem  to  have  a  greater 
vigour  than  the  above  and  will  perhaps  become  of  real  value. 

GROUP  No.  6. — Adult  leaves  very  characteristic;  gondola 
shaped  at  the  centre,  strongly  revolute  inside  on  the  margins. 
The  Berlandieri  of  this  group  are  mostly  very  inferior; 
amongst  them  we  will  mention  Berlandieri  Ecole  (Fig.  25). 


/  CEPAGES.  69 

(c)  Adaptation  and  Culture. — The  V.  Berlandieri  is  a 
species  belonging  exclusively  to  the  south  of  the  United 
States.  It  grows  south  of  the  Brazos  River,  throughout  the 
centre  and  south  of  Texas  in  the  south  of  New  Mexico, 
and  in  the  north  of  Mexico. 

The  forms  of  Tomentose  Berlandieri  are  most  frequent  on 
the  river  banks.  The  forms  of  glabrous  Berlandieri  in- 
habit the  hilly  or  mountainous  regions  of  medium  elevation 
belonging  to  the  various  strata  of  the  lower  Cretacean;  the 
individuals  of  these  forms  are  distributed  in  very  great 
numbers  on  the  sides  and  tops  of  hills,  where  they  resist 
extreme  droughts,  such  as  do  not  occur  in  the  warm  regions 
of  the  south  of  France.  The  temperature  in  Texas  reaches 
40°  to  42°  C.  (104°  to  1 08°  F.)  in  summer.  In  Missouri 
and  Texas  the  Berlandieri  has  resisted  cold  of  -  -  23°  and 
—28°  C.  (9. 4°  to  18.4°  F.),  with  out  being  damaged  by  the  fall 
of  temperature ;  by  this  it  can  support  the  temperature  of  our 
French  regions  and  succeeds  in  both  the  north  and  south  of 
France,  if  only  the  influence  of  the  climate  is  taken  into 
account.  It  has  not  suffered  from  the  cold  in  the  Charentes, 
Rhone,  and  Maine-et-Loire. 

Of  all  species  of  American  vines,  the  Berlandieri  is  the 
most  resistant  to  chlorosis,  and  succeeds  best  in  the  chalky 
limestones  and  white  marls.  It  grows  luxuriantly  in  Texas, 
in  soils  belonging  to  the  lower  Cretaceous,  which  are  rich  in 
limestone,  easily  soluble  in  rain  water.  The  soils  there  vary 
in  fertility,  but  are  always  rather  poor,  they  have  a  blackish 
colour  similar  to  those  of  the  Charentes,  the  calcareous 
fragments,  mixed  with  the  soil,  which  are  produced  by  the 
displaced  and  decomposed  rocks  of  the  subsoil,  are  white  and 
very  soft.  The  subsoil  is  usually  constituted  of  large  fis- 
sured rocks,  white  and  soft,  with  relatively  scarce  patches  of 
siliceous  nodules  of  various  sizes;  occasionally  it  is  formed  of 
laminated  strata  of  very  calcareous  marl,  bluish  white,  rather 
yellow.  In  these  surroundings,  the  Berlandieri  remains  green 
and  vigorous  in  very  dry  years,  and  also  in  very  rainy  springs. 
In  France,  it  had  been  noticed  that  the  V.  Berlandieri  grew 
well  in  strongly  calcareous  soils;  at  Dr.  Davin's,  for  example, 
and  in  very  chalky  soil ;  at  J.  E.  Planchon's,  in  very  calcareous 
quaternary  tufa;  in  the  Charente-Inferieure,  and  in  the  Groies 
soils.  Examples  of  'the  resistance  of  Berlandieri  to  chlorosis 
are  actually  numerous  and  conclusive.  In  the  experimental 
fields  of  the  chalky  Champagne  (Champagne  crayeuse],  near 
Cognac,  it  has  maintained  a  fairly  constant  green  appearance. 


7o 


AMERICAN  VINES. 


The  soils  of  the  Charentes  have  the  following  composi- 
tion : — 

Groie  soils. — Soil  light;  colour,  ochreous  or  red,  more  or 
less  dark,  formed  of  50  to  70  parts  fine  sand-  and  of  30  to 
50  parts  small  angular  calcareous  fragments,  having  dimen- 
sions varying  from  i  to  3  cm.  (X  to  i%  inch),  and  from  0.5 
to  i  cm.  (%  to  y2  inch)  in  thickness.  The  depth  of  this  bed 
is  from  15  to  25  cm.  (  6  to  10  inches).  The  subsoil  is  formed 
of  calcareous  fragments,  larger,  flattened,  or  of  even  dimen- 
sions on  all  sides  (5  to  10  cm.).  A  little  under  the  soil  they 
are  not  numerous,  nor  mixed  with  organic  matter;  they  are 
decomposed  outside,  forming  a  yellowish  marl,  which  covers 
them,  and  fills  the  interstices.  Occasionally  their  decompo- 
sition is  more  complete.  These  soils  are  frequently  met  on 
the  Jurassic  and  Cretaceous  formations,  and  are  found  all 
over  the  Bourgogne. 

The  strong  groies  are  ^more  clayey.  Under  the  soil,  at 
a  depth  of  20  to  35  cm.  (8  to  14  inches)  they  become  marly. 

Champagne  Soils. — Dark  grey  or  black  vegetable  soil, 
mixed  with  a  small  quantity  of  little  fragments  of  limestone 
rock,  soft,  and  easily  broken  by  the  hand;  soil  light  and  very 
friable,  depth  15  to  35  cm.  (6  to  14  inches).  The  subsoil  is 
a  chalky  rock,  friable  or  easily  opening  under  the  action  of 
frosts.  It  is  sometimes  formed  of  irregular  fragments,  the 
interstices  of  which  are  filled,  near  the  surface,  with  a  vege- 
table soil;  sometimes  with  layers  i  to  3  cm.  (%  to  i^  inch) 
thick,  horizontally  disposed ;  in  the  latter  case  the  roots  never 
penetrate  to  the  subsoil. 

The  several  analyses  following,  due  to  B.  Chauzit,  will 
show  the  amount  of  carbonate  of  lime  in  the  chalky  soils  of 
Texas  where  the  V.  Berlandieri  grows  naturally,  and  also 
those  where  it  has  remained  green  in  the  Charentes: — 


Belton  soil,  Texas 

subsoil 

Temple  soil,  Texas,  No.  1 
No.  2 
Austin 

subsoil,  Texas     .  . 
Champagne  soil,  Julliac-le-Coq,  Charente 
subsoil 

soil  d'Angeac,  Charente 
subsoil 
Cognac  soil      .  .  . .  , . 

subsoil .  .  ... 

Gente"  soil        .  . 
1  *       subsoil .  . 


96.42% 

94.90 

76.10 

51.51 

79.48 

90.65 

43.60 

68.65 

56.37 

75.35 

48.55 

75.76 

32.37 

56.48 


CEPAGES.  71 

On  comparing  these  analyses,  in  reference  to  the  carbon- 
ate of  lime,  with  those  of  the  chalky  or  marly  regions  of 
France  where  no  American  vine  has  prospered,  it  will  be 
seen  that  those  soils  contain  an  amount  of  carbonate  of  lime 
which  is  not  higher  than  in  the  soils  we  have  mentioned 
and  where  the  V.  Berlandieri  has  remained  green. 

Herewith  several^analyses  of  soils  from  highly  calcareous 
regions,  according  to  Chauzit  and  Margottet,  expressing 
their  percentage  of  carbonate  of  lime : — 


Chevillon  soil  (Charente-Inferieure) 
Montels 

subsoil 

St.  Jean-d'Angely 
subsoil 
Conteneuil,  soil 

subsoil 
Vertus  soil  (Champagne-Marne)  .  . 

subsoil  .  . 

d  'Oger  soil 

subsoil 
d'Avise,   soil 

subsoil  .  . 

de  Quassac  soil  (Gard) 
d'Aubais 

Villeveyrac  ' '  (Herault) 
Verchant 

subsoil 


54.46% 

52.75 

64.82 

59.55 

67.80 

48.24 

65.00 

52.53 

64.90 

65.24 

81.80 

42.33 

69.45 

59.72 

72.45 

54.65 

35.25 

58.86 


Leucate  soil  (Ande)        .  .  .  .  .  .               .  .          49 . 93 

Aveyron  soil                     .  .  .  .                                           52 .  cO 

Daix                      (C6te-d'Or)  ..  ..              ..          62.74 

Beaune  . .  . .  31 . 65 

subsoil  .  .  .  .  56 . 69 

Volnay  soil  (Fremiet)  .  .  .  .  31 . 66 

subsoil  .  .  42 . 1 1 

Chassagne  soil  (Grand  Clos)  .  .  .  .  62. 13 

subsoil  .  .                                             57 . 29 

Sautenay  soil  (Chaissay)  .  .                                           36 . 77 

subsoil  .  .  .  .                          60 . 96 

The  other  species  of  vines  which  have  been  experimented 
with  in  the  Cognac  district,  in  the  chalky  soils  of  which  we 
have  given  the  analysis,  became  completely  stunted.  Con- 
trary to  the  V.  Berlandieri,  the  Folle-Blanche,  growing  on 
its  own  roots,  when  planted  in  ,the  s  me  conditions  as  the 
V.  Berlandieri,  was  not  always  exempt  from  chlorosis. 

We  have  pointed  out,  in  the  first  part,  the  fact  that  a 
number  of  American  vines  sometimes  remained  green  in 
chalky  soils,, but  rapidly  turned  yellow  and  died  as  soon  as 
grafted.  It  was  important  that  the  question  of  the  grafted 


7  ^  AMERICAN  VINES. 

Berlandieri  in  chalky  soils  should  be  resolved.  Now  it  is 
done  for  most  of  the  calcareous  soils.  Only  one  example 
had  been  observed  in  Texas,  at  Belton,  where,  in  the  very 
white,  chalky,  limestone  soil,  good  varieties  of  Berlandieri 
had  been  planted  in  1884,  out  of  which  a  few  vines  were 
grafted  in  1886;  at  the  second  leaf  after  the  grafting,  in 
1887,  the  grafts  remanied  very  green  and  very  vigorous, 
the  canes  were  from  3  to  5  metres  (10  to  16  feet)  long. 

At  J.  E.  Planchon's,  Berlandieri  were  planted  in  1880,  in 
soils  partly  formed  by  the  decomposition  of  the  Quaternary 
tufa,  rich  in  carbonate  of  lime,  and  were  grafted  in 
1882.  They  were  planted  amongst  many  other  American 

grafting  stocks,  such  as  Riparia,  Taylor,  Solonis,  Jacquez.* 
ut  of  30  grafted  plants  25  have  knitted,  and  the  grafts  are 
much  more  vigorous  than  those  on  the  other  grafting  stocks. 
Besides,  the  trunk  of  the  stock  is  more  developed  than  that 
of  the  scion.  At  Bethniont's.  in  a  bad  groie  soil,  where  over 
600  varieties  have  been  experimented  upon,  the  Berlandieri 
alone  has  resisted.  The  grafts,  which  are  ten  years  old 
become  more  and  more  vigorous,  although  they  are  grafted 
with  Mataro,  which  is  known  to  do  very  badly  on  American 
vines. f  In  the  experimental  fields  of  the  Viticultural  Station 
of  Cognac,  in  very  chalky  soils,  the  grafts  on  good  varieties 
of  the  Berlandieri  have  remained  green  and  vigorous.  |||j 

Important  reconstitutions  with  grafted  Berlandieri  have 
been  made  in  the  Charentes;  these  grafts,  which  are  actually 
eleven  and  twelve  years  old,  have  always  remained  green 
and  vigorous  in  a  calcareous  soil  where  the  Solonis,  Jacquez,* 
etc.,  grafted  with  the  same  varieties,  turned  yellow  and  died. 
At  the  School  of  Agriculture,  Montpellier,  the  Berlandieri 
Nos.  i  and  2,  grafted  with  Carignane  since  four  years,  are 
of  an  excessive  vigour  and  very  great  fertility  in  a  soil 
particularly  liable  to  cause  chlorosis,  and  where  no  other 
grafting  stock  has  lived,  not  even  the  Franco-American 
hybrids  At  the  same  time  a  fact  of  the  greatest  interest 
has  been  remarked.  The  grafted  Berlandieri  have  never 
shown  a  trace  of  chlorosis,  while  the  Berlandieri  No  i, 
on  its  own  roots,  of  the  same  age,  planted  next  to  the 
grafted  vines,  turned  yellow.  These  neat  and  conclusive 
facts,  confirmed  by  other  results  of  the  same  nature,  prove 
that  the  grafts,  contrary  to  what  has  happened  to  most  of 
the  other  grafting  stocks,  do  not  diminish  to  a  notable 
degree  the  power  of  resistance  of  the  Berlandieri  to  chlorosis. 

*  Lenoir.  t  Not  in  California   (Trans.) 


CEPAGES.  73 

And  it  forces  us  to  the  conclusion  that,  in  soils  conducive 
to  chlorosis,  the  reconstitution  should  be  made  with  rooted 
grafts.  As  the  grafted  cuttings  of  Berlandieri  succeed  as 
well  as  the  freely-rooting  grafting  stocks  (as  we  shall  see 
later  on),  the  reconstitution  by  this  species  in  most  of  the 
chalky  and  marly  soils  seems  actually  certain. 

The  Berlandieri  therefore  resists  chlorosis  after  grafting 
and  if,  exceptionally,  chlorosis  appears  at  the  first  or 
second  year  in  the  most  calcareous  soils,  it  is  only  tran- 
sient and  of  no  importance,  and,  as  we  have  already  pointed 
out  in  the  first  part,  it  does  not  become  manifest  after  the 
fourth  year.  But  it  is  absolutely  necessary,  and  we  insist  on 
this  point,  that  Berlandieri  stocks  be  selected  of  the  greatest 
vigour.  The  failures  resulting  in  certain  districts  from 
slender,  slightly  vigorous  Berlandieris  were  foreseen;  this, 
however,  does  not  minimize  the  value  of  the  vigorous  forms 
of  this  species  for  chalky  soils. 

The  V.  Berlandieri  is  a  remarkable  species  for  its  grafting 
facility,  and  for  the  productivity  of  the  graft?  which  it  carries. 
Several  European  vines  have  been  tried  on  it — Carignane, 
Aramon,  Aspiran,  Folle-Blanche,  Cabernets,  Merlot,  Cinsaut, 
Pinot,  etc. — and  have  all  done  well.  No  difference  in  size 
between  the  stock  and  the  scion  has  been  produced.  Thus, 
at  J.  E.  Planchon's,  the  Berlandieri  planted  on  soils  of  the 
Quaternary  tufa  in  1880,  grafted  in  1882  with  various 
varieties,  had,  in  1895,  a  very  great  vigour,  and  the  stock 
had  a  larger  diameter  than  the  scion.  It  is  the  same  at 
Mas  de  las  Sorres,  where  the  oldest  grafted  Berlandieris 
exist  in  rich  slightly  calcareous  soils  (grafted  for  nineteen 
years  on  two  year  old  stocks),  and  which  are  of  all  the 
grafted  American  vines  giving  the  greatest  yield  for  the 
same  scion.  The  same  again  is  observed  at  Macquin's, 
Saint-Emilion,  in  the  environs  of  Cognac,  at  the  School  of 
Agriculture,  Montpellier;  at  Verneuil's  in  the  Grande 
Champagne  of  Cognac,  Frappin's  of  Segonzac,  etc.  From 
the  points  of  view  of  perfection  of  knitting,  affinity,  and  fine 
growth  and  fructification  of  the  grafts,  the  Berlandieri  is  a 
remarkable  grafting  stock.  The  earliness  of  the  maturity  of 
the  grafts  on  Berlandieri  is  comparable  at  Las  Sorres  and  at 
the  School  of  Agriculture,  Montpellier,  to  those  of  Riparia 
grafts.* 

*  See  in   the   chapter   on   Grafting   the  figures  for  comparative   yields   of   Berlan- 
dieri and  several  other  grafting  stocks  obtained  at  Las  Sorres. 


74  AMERICAN  VINES. 

Most  of  the  varieties  of  V.  Berlandieri  have  the  drawback 
of  not  growing  from  cuttings.  And  it  is  to  be  noted  that 
the  most  vigorous  forms  with  types  of  character  adapted  to 
the  calcareous  soils,  are  those  most  difficult  to  grow  from 
cuttings. 

The  resistance  to  phylloxera  and  superiority  of  resistance 
to  chlorosis  of  the  Berlandieri  are  actually  without  doubt, 
but  the  difficulty  of  multiplying  the  grafting  stock  would 
seem  to  render  it  of  no  use  for  re  constitution  in  chalky  soils. 
This  difficulty  of  multiplication  is  fortunately  actually  re- 
solved beyond  all  doubt,  the  selection  and  isolation  of  the 
vigorous  forms  are  definitely  completed,  and  the  utilization 
of  the  Berlandieri  is  now  as  common  a  practice  as 
of  the  Rupestris  and  Riparia.  Without  actually  enter- 
ing into  details,  which  will  be  explained  later  on,  we 
will  state  that  grafted  cuttings  of  Berlandieri  do,  under 
the  ordinary  conditions,  in  well-conducted  nurseries,  root  as 
freely  as  the  grafted  cuttings  of  Rupestris  and  Riparia.  For 
several  successive  years  the  average  strike  of  grafts  (first 
choice)  has  been  50  per  cent,  at  the  School  of  Agriculture, 
Montpellier,  and  in  various  nurseries.  When  in  possession 
of  Berlandieri  wood  it  is  easy  to  obtain  rooted-grafts; 
and  this  is  possible  in  the  most  northerly  as  well  as  the 
meridional  regions  of  France,  for,  at  Th  ornery  (near 
Paris),  Salomon  has  obtained  40  per  cent,  of  good  grafts 
with  grafted  cuttings  of  Berlandieri,  —  as  much  as  with 
the  Riparia,  and  more  than  with  the  Franco-American 
hybrids  of  Rupestris.  Besides,  the  grafted  cuttings  of  Ber- 
landieri are  quite  as  well  knitted  as  those  obtained  on  most 
other  grafting  stocks.  As  it  is  not  advantageous  to  reconstitute 
in  calcareous  soils  with  any  but  rooted  grafts,  and  as  these 
are  easily  obtained  from  Berlandieri  wood,  the  utilization  of 
this  variety  does  not  offer  any  considerable  difficulty. 

The  only  difficulty  consists  in  having  the  Berlandieri  wood 
to  make  the  grafted  cuttings.  This  difficulty  is  easily 
resolved  by  several  very  practical  processes.  The  best,  in 
our  opinion,  consists  in  grafting  at  a  couple  of  inches  under 
the  soil  on  Riparia,  Rupestris,  or  even  European  vines,  the 
cuttings  of  selected  Berlandieri  (No.  2,  No.  i,  Anjeac, 
Daignere,  etc.).  Berlandieris  knit  very  freely.  English- 
cleft,  whip-tongue,  and  side-cleft  grafts  are  made  according 
to  the  size  of  the  stock.  Generally,  under  these  con- 
ditions, roots  grow  at  the  joint,  but  they  give  rapidly,  in 


CEPAGES.  '/5 

the  first  year  after  the  grafting,  good  wood,  and  quantities 
of  cuttings,  which  are  annually  utilized  for  grafting 
stocks. 

To  obtain  mother  stocks,  the  summer  and  autumn  layer- 
ings  may  be  had  recourse  to,  or  the  bourturage  en  pousse,* 
but  the  process  of  grafting  the  Berlandieri  on  already  grown 
vines  (Rupestris,  Riparia,  and  V.  Vinifera)  seems  to  us  the 
most  economical  and  practical,  in  order  to  procure,  in 
quantity,  the  wood  necessary  to  prepare  grafted  cuttings. 

Its  special  and  unique  properties  of  adaptation  to  very 
bad  chalky  soils  make  the  V.  Berlandieri  (or  its  Americo- 
American  hybrids)  the  only  species  permitting  the  reconsti- 
tution  of  the  soft,  white,  calcareous,  chalky  soils,  where  all 
other  American  vines  have  succumbed.  And  when  the 
supply  of  Berlandieri  cuttings  becomes  plentiful,  it  will 
permit  the  reconstitution  of  all  the  doubtful  soils,  where 
many  grafting  stocks  have  not  given  satisfaction,  and  where 
reconstitution  has  been  considered  impossible,  such  as  the 
Quaternary  calcareous  tufa  of  the  south  of  France,  the  yellow 
and  white  marls,  the  lacustrine  calcareous  soils  of  the  Eocene 
and  Miocene,  the  chalky  soils  of  the  Cretaceous,  the  groies 
soils  of  the  Jurassic  of  the  Charentes,  of  Vendee,  Dordogne, 
Saumurois;  the  Cretaceous  chalks  of  Champagne  ^(Marne), 
Yonne,  Aube,  etc. ;  the  white  marls  of  the  Oolithic,  Bath- 
onian  and  Jurassic  of  the  Cote-d'Or;  of  various  chalky 
formations  proceeding  often  from  calcareous  sources,  and 
appertaining  to  the  diverse  geological  formations  of  different 
regions. 

But  it  must  not  be  thought  that  the  V.  Berlandieri,  on 
account  of  its  resistance  to  chlorosis,  and  on  account  of  its 
thick  roots,  should  be  preferred  to  other  well-known  meri- 
torious grafting  stocks,  for  clay -siliceous,  siliceous,  or  clayey 
soils. 

*  Investigations  made  during  the  last  five  years,  on  the  propagation  of 
Berlandieri  by  ordinary  cuttings,  have  resulted  in  definite  success,  and  the  use 
of  Berlandieri  has  been  rendered  quite  as  easy  as  that  of  Riparia  or  Rupestris, 
specially  in  hot  countries  like  Australia.  Millions  of  cuttings  have  been  planted 
in  the  Pyrenees  Orientales  during  the  last  five  years,  and  the  percentage  of 
strike  was  always  as  high  as  with  Riparia  (from  60  to  80  per  cent). 

To  obtain  these  results,  it  suffices  in  practice  to  gather  the  cuttings  from  at 
least  four  or  five  years  old  stocks,  and  to  take  only  those  well  lignified.  Further, 
and  this  is  essential,  they  must  be  planted  in  a  nursery,  directly  after  the  fall 
of  the  leaves,  that  is  to  say,  in  autumn,  and  not  in  spring,  as  is  usually  done. 
In  a  word,  very  early  plantation  must  be  performed;  the  nurseries  must  be 
watered  and  well  attended  to,  and  if  these  precautions  are  observed  Berlandieris 
may  be  easily  and  practically  propagated  from  cuttings.  In  1900,  1,800,000 
cuttings  were  planted,  the  average  strike  varying  between  60  and  85  per  cent. 
(P.  V.  1900.) 


76 


AMERICAN    VINES. 


V.  CORDIFOLIA. 


(a)  Description. — Stump  very  vigorous,  creeping  habit, 
trunk  very  strong;  wood  of  the  year  shining  cinnamon-like 
colour,  with  the  bases  of  hair  persistent ;  tendrils  discon- 
tinuous nodes  flat.  Leaves,  young:  unfolding  early,  var- 
nished appearance,  fawn  colour;  adult  (Fig.  26):  medium, 


Fig.  26. — Leaf  of  V.  Cordifolia. 

rounded  cordiform,  entire,  thick;  petiolar  sinus  deep  and  nar- 
row; teeth  regular,  obtuse,   normal  to  the  limb;    upper-face 
deep-green,  shining ;  under-f ace  lighter  green,  more  shining, 
with  ribs  covered  with  short    supple  hair;   petiole    grooved. 
Bunch  long,  berries  loose,  spherical,  black  and  shining,  harsh 


CEPA.GES.  77 

taste.  Seeds  (Fig.  27)  medium,  stout;  beak  stout  and  short; 
chalaze  round;  raphe  forming  a  small  belt  ending  abruptly. 
Roots  fairly  strong  and  hard. 

(6)  Varieties. — The  varieties  of  V.  Cordifolia  are  not  very 
numerous,  and,  although  the  species  does  not  offer  very  great 
interest  from  a  cultural  point  of  view,  it  is  well  to  indicate 
them.  V.  Cordifolia  lives  specially  in  rich,  loose,  fresh,  deep 
soils  on  river  banks,  where  it  is  mixed 
with  Riparias;  a  few  types  are  found 
exceptionally  in  calcareous  soils;  this  is 
opposite  to  what  takes  place  with  V.  Ber- 
landieri,  the  types  of  which  are  more  Fig.  27.— Sefed  of 
numerous  in  calcareous  soils  than  on  river 
banks.  It  seems  natural,  therefore,  for  .the  Berlandieri 
imported  into  France  to  succeed  in  chalky  soils,  for  the  forms 
of  this  species  are  found  widely  distributed  in  such  soil, 
and  that  the  success  of  V.  Cordifolia  in  such  soil  is  an 
accident,  as  its  forms  are  more  generally  found  in  siliceous 
soils.  This  is  in  effect  what  occurs.  However,  the  question 
is  only  of  secondary  interest,  for  the  geographical  area  of 
dissemination  of  V.  Cordifolia  in  the  American  cretaceous 
soils  is  an  exception,  and  its  forms,  even  if  they  succeeded  in 
France,  would  not  be  superior  to  those  of  Berlandieri,  for 
which  resistance  to  chlorosis  is  the  general  case. 

This  applies  also  to  V.  Cinerea;  we,  therefore,  will  not 
mention  it  again  when  studying  that  species. 

The  varieties  of  V.  Cordifolia  may  be  divided  into  several 
groups.  The  varieties  of  Florida,  very  rare,  have  thin  leaves 
of  strong  varnished  appearance,  glabrous  on  both  faces, 
except  on  the  under-face  at  the  junction  of  the  ribs.  They 
have  not  been  imported  into  France,  and  are  of  no  interest 
for  purposes  of  reconstitution. 

The  most  numerous  varieties,  the  only  kind  introduced  in 
Europe,  are  those  of  rich  soils;  they  have,  in  their  wild  state, 
a  remarkable  development,  superior  to  that  of  Riparia 
especially  in  the  size  of  trunk.  It  differs  from  the  above 
group  by  the  leaf  having  two  series  of  alternating  teeth, 
upper-face  dull -green,  under-face  varnished  like.  Millardet 
has  distinguished  two  forms  in  this  group — bronze  form, 
upper-face  of  leaf  deep-green,  the  shoots,  petiole  and  ribs 
bronze  violet;  and  a  yellow  form  with  generally  lighter 
appearance,  under-face  greenish-yellowish  varnished  like, 
with  wood  and  ribs  light  in  colour. 


AMERICAN  VINES. 


Pig.  28. — Leaf  of  V.  Cordifolia  Sempervirens. 

Side  by  side  with  the  latter,  may  be  placed  the  V. 
difolia  Sempervirens  (Fig.  28)  of  T.  V.  Munson,  which  was 
introduced  into  France  in  1891,  and  which,  according  to  him, 
would  be  a  form  belonging  to  calcareous  soils.  The  leaves 
of  this  variety  are  very  characteristic;  they  are  triangular 
in  shape,  very  long,  lanceolate;  the  two  ends  of  the  petiolar 
sinus  in  a  straight  line,  narrow  at  the  base,  completely  glab- 
rous and  very  varnish ed-like  on  both  faces,  slightly  deeper 
colour  on  upper-face,  thick,  cartilaginous.  The  mid-rib  is 


CEPAGES.  79 

very  prominent;  the  other  ribs  less  marked.  Petiole  short 
and  slender,  has  a  deep  groove  bordered  by  numerous  stiff 
hairs.  Young  shoots  greenish,  wine  colour  near  the  nodes; 
this  is  a  very  curious  form  from  a  botanical  point  of 
view. 

The  varieties  which  are  represented  by  very  few  indi- 
viduals in  clay  soils  have  shorter  leaves  than  those  growing 
in  rich  soils,  almost  orbicular,  with  rudimentary  teeth,  thick 
cartilaginous,  golden-yellow  shining  colour  on  under-face,  and 
incurved  margins.  Certain  types  are  almost  entirely  glabrous, 
others  have  stiff  fairly-abundant  fawn-coloured  hair  on  the 
ribs  of  the  under-face. 

(c)  Adaptation  and  Culture. — The  V.  Cordifolia  is  one 
of  the  most  widely-spread  species  in  the  United  States.  It 
exists  from  the  Great  Lakes  to  Florida,  and  is  especially 
abundant  in  the  Central  States  of  the  United  States  (Illinois, 
Tennessee,  Missouri,  Arkansas,  North  Texas)  in  regions, 
therefore,  where  the  extremes  of  temperature  are  very 
great. 

We  have  said  that  the  greater  number  of  individuals  of 
V.  Cordifolia  are  found  in  the  centre  and  east-centre,  on 
river  banks,  where  they  grow  with  V.  Riparia  in  the  greyish, 
black,  fertile,  deep,  fresh,  but  not  damp  alluvials;  on  the 
Mississippi  banks,  for  instance,  where  they  attain  the  greatest 
development.  They  are  also  often  found  in  rich  pebbly  soils, 
generally  red,  or  in  siliceous  soils  with  fine,  fertile  sand 
(Silurian,  Granitic,  Devonian). 

The  forms  belonging  to  calcareous  soils  exist  (north  of 
Texas)  in  white  chalky  soils,  more  siliceous  and  more  clayey 
than  those  in  which  V.  Berlandieri  grows,  or  sometimes 
in  almost  pure  white  clay,  in  Tennessee  for  instance.  Their 
vigour  is  always  inferior  to  that  of  the  forms  growing  in  rich 
soils;  their  leaves,  however,  remain  green  in  the  driest  soils; 
for  instance,  in  the  white  clay  siliceous  soils  of  Missouri  con- 
taining up  to  83  per  cent,  of  clay. 

The  Cordifolias  grown  in  France  have  always  had  a 
remarkable  vigour  in  slightly  or  non-calcareous  soils,  and 
especially  in  clay-calcareous,  clay,  and  clay-siliceous  soils. 
The  grafting  succeeds  well  with  this  species,  which  bears 
vigorous  fructiferous  scions,  with  strong  trunks.  In  white 
chalky  soils,  the  forms  tried  up  to  the  present  rapidly 
became  yellow,  and  often  died  after  the  first  year  of 
planting  out. 


80  AMERICAN  VINES. 

V.  Cordifolia  does  not  root  freely  from  cuttings,  although 
it  is  better  in  this  respect  than  V.  Berlandieri;  it  has  given 
up  to  60  per  cent,  strikes  with  ordinary  cuttings.  For 
soils  where  the  most  vigorous  forms  might  thrive,  other 
species  are  quite  as  vigorous,  and  strike  better  from 
cuttings,  and  therefore  are  more  practical. 

The  resistance  to  phylloxera  of  the  V.  Cordifolia  is  very 
high,  and  may  be  designated  by  19.  We  shall  see  later 
on  the  interest  its  hybrids  have  on  account  of  the  remark- 
able transmitted  resistance  to  phylloxera  which  they  owe 
to  it. 

V.    CINEREA. 

(a)  Description. — Stump  very  vigorous,  trunk  strong; 
wood  of  the  year  with  prominent  ribs,  of  an  ashy -grey 
colour,  with  numerous  short  and  stiff  hairs;  ten- 
drils discontinuous.  Leaves  (Fig.  29)  cordiform:  elongated, 
entire;  petiolar  sinus  very  deep,  slightly  open;  teeth  wide 
and  obtuse;  limb  with  ribs  regularly  sunk  on  the  upper-face 
of  a  dull  greyish  colour;  under-face  ashy-green,  dull,  with 
numerous  short  hairs  on  the  principal  and  secondary  ribs. 
Bunch  large,  with  small  berries,  close  spherical,  deep 
shiny  black  colour;  taste  acid.  Seeds  (Fig.  30)  medium, 
rather  elongated;  beak  narrow  and  short;  chalaze  small, 
round;  raphe  in  a  thread-like  cord  surrounding  the  seed. 
Roots  large  and  fleshy. 

(6)  Varieties. — The  varieties  of  V.  Cinerea  are  not  very 
numerous.  Some  of  them,  which  we  will  call  glabrous 
Cinereas,  have,  contrary  to  the  most  common  forms,  only 
a  few  fluffy  hairs  on  the  principal  and  secondary  nerves 
of  the  under-face  in  the  case  of  old  and  middle-aged 
leaves;  they  live  in  dry  soils.  The  more  numerous 
tomentose  forms  have  the  general  characteristics  of  the 
species,  and  live,  like  the  V.  Cordifolia,  in  rich  and  fresh 
soils  on  the  banks  of  rivers  and  water-courses.  A  third 
group  of  very  rare  forms,  to  which  T.  V.  Munson  gave  the 
name  of  Wichita,  are  represented  by  a  few  individuals  in 
calcareous,  but  rather  rich  and  siliceous  soils,  on  the  banks 
of  the  Red  River,  in  the  extreme  north  of  Texas.  The 
leaves  of  these  forms,  not  yet  introduced  into  France,  are 
orbicular,  sub-medium,  thick,  with  rudimentary  teeth,  and 
short  stiff  numerous  hairs  on  the  principal  ribs  of  the 
under-face. 


CEPAGES 


Pig.  29.  —  Leaf  of  V.  Cinerea. 

(c)    Adaptation    and    Culture.  —  The    geographical    area    of 
distribution   of   V.    Cinerea  in   America  is   about   the   same 
as    that   of   V.    Cordifolia,    but    rather   less: 
it    extends    from     Illinois    to     the     Brazos 
River    in    Texas,    and    there    is    sometimes 
associated,    on    the    banks    of    rivers,    with 
the   forms   of   Berlandieri   belonging  to  rich     Fig  30_Seedof 
soils,     a     fact     worth     noting,     and     which 


ig 
v. 


82  AMERICAN  VINES. 

explains  the  numerous  hybrids  Berlandieri  X  Cinerea, 
recently  introduced  into  France  as  pure  forms  of  V.  Ber- 
landieri. 

The  soils  where  V.  Cinerea  grows  are  the  same  as  in  the 
case  of  V.  Cordifolia.  However,  the  Cinerea  often  grows 
alone  quite  abundantly  in  low  swampy  and  clay  lands  in  the 
states  bordering  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  is  in  soils  of  this 
nature — clay,  clay-siliceous,  or  clay-calcareous — that  this 
species  thrives  best  in  France,  a  fact  which  is  in  direct  rela- 
tion to  the  size  of  its  roots.  It  is  never  found  in  the  sandy 
siliceous  soils  of  America,  and  it  thrives  very  badly  in  France 
in  very  loose  dry  soils. 

We  will  not  repeat  for  the  V.  Cinerea  what  has  been 
already  said  as  to  the  relative  value  of  the  various  forms  of 
V.  Cordif oli  i  in  differ  jnt  soils.  The  forms  of  V.  Cinerea 
peculiar  to  rich  soils,  tried  in  France  in  chalky  soils,  have 
rapidly  become  yellow  and  withered. 

This  species  is  difficult  to  propagate  by  cuttings;  its  resist- 
ance to  phylloxera  for  the  forms  already  studied  may  be 
represented  as  15.  As  a  species,  the  Cinerea  is  without 
value  for  reconstitution,  excepting  perhaps  in  the  case  of 
swampy  clay  soils,  but  it  has  yielded  a  great  number  of 
hybrids,  which  may  be  of  some  value. 


V.  RUPESTRIS. 

(a)  Description  (General  Characters), — Stump  vigorous; 
bushy  habit ;  trunk  short  and  thick ;  wood  of  the  year  dull 
brown -red;  sometimes  shining  chestnut -brown ;  tendrils  dis- 
continuous; leaves,  young:  transparent  and  bright,  russet- 
brown;  adult:  small,  wider  than  long,  entire,  folded  inwards 
along  the  mid-rib,  the  sides  turned  up,  glabrous,  thick; 
petiolar  sinus  open  and  diminutive,  indentations  well-formed, 
wide  and  obtuse;  upper-face  dark-green 
and  lustrous,  under-face  pale  green  and 
glossy;  bunch  small;  berries  small,  sub- 
spherical,  black-violet;  pulp  strongly  red 
Fig.  31.— Seed  of  coloured,  taste  clean.  Seeds  (Fig.  31) 
small,  globular;  beak  thick  and  short; 
chalaze  long  and  slightly  prominent;  raphe  rudimentary, 
merging  into  the  chalaze;  roots  long,  slender,  very  hard,  or 
strong  and  fleshy  (Rupestris  du  Lot). 


CEPAGES.  8j 

(6)  Varieties. — The  varieties  of  the  V.  Rupestris  are  very 
numerous.  H.  Jaeger,  who  was  the  first  to  study  the  varia- 
tions presented  by  this  vine  in  the  wild  state,  isolated  more 
than  100  types.  The  great  interest  that  this  species  offered 
as  a  grafting-stock  for  the  reconstitution  of  vineyards,  Mil- 
lardet  having  drawn  the  attention  of  viticulturists  to  its 
value  in  1882,  has  been  the  origin  of  an  important  selection. 
Besides,  the  Rupestris  were  being  discovered  and  imported  at 
the  time  when  great  care  was  being  exercised  in  the  selection 
of  Riparias ;  and  it  may  be  stated  that  the  selection  of  forms 
of  this  species  has  been  carried  further  than  for  any  other. 
From  this  has  resulted  that  most  of  the  bad  varieties  have 
been  rapidly  eliminated,  and  that  in  culture  now  there  are 
only  very  vigorous  and  meritorious  forms  of  Rupestris.  It  is 
necessary  in  the  case  of  Rupestris,  as  well  as  for  Riparia  and 
Berlandieri,  to  use,  for  reconstitution,  only  forms  of  the 
greatest  vigour. 

In  a  general  way,  great  vigour,  strong  trunk  and  canes, 
thick  and  shining  leaves,  are  the  best  characteristics  of  the 
superior  varieties  of  Rupestris.  All  the  varieties  that  are  not 
vigorous  (those  with  thin,  dull,  and  light-green  leaves),  should 
be  rejected  from  culture.  If  such  varieties  are  used,  failure  is 
certain.  The  selection  of  vigorous  forms  is,  perhaps,  as  impor- 
tant for  Rupestris  and  Riparia  as  in  the  case  of  Berlandieri. 

The  Rupestris  is  divided  into  two  principal  groups,  sub- 
divisible according  to  the  character  of  the  leaves.  The  first 
group  comprises  the  Rupestris,  with  comparatively  small 
leaves;  their  habit  is  generally,  very  bushy.  The  sub- 
divisions may  be  established  in  this  group. 

i st.  The  Rupestris  of  very  bushy  habit,  secondary  and 
tertiary  ramifications  very  numerous  and  erect,  greenish  and 
without  lustre  during  the  herbaceous  state,  the  principal 
branches  relatively  short ;  leaves  well  folded  along  the  mid- 
rib; margins  parallel,  almost  touching  each  other,  and  plane, 
appearing  as  if  imbricated  on  the  branches;  they  are  often 
thin,  dull  on  the  upper-face,  and  of  a  yellowish-green, 
slightly  shining,  underneath.  These  forms  are  the  least 
vigorous;  they  easily  lose  their  leaves,  which  are  often  spotted 
with  small  and  numerous  quadrangular  black  dots.  In  a 
general  way  they  must  be  rejected. 

2nd.  A  group  of  Rupestris  comprising  the  most  vigorous 
forms,  with  very  large  trunk,  the  principal  canes  strong  and 
more  or  less  trailing,  the  secondary  ramifications  very 


84  AMERICAN  VINES. 

numerous  and  upright  on  the  principal  canes;  leaves  of 
medium  dimensions  in  soils  of  ordinary  fertility,  lustrous 
on  both  faces,  the  shoots  rather  reddish  in  the  herbaceous 
state.  Amongst  these  Rupestris,  we  mention  among  the 
most  vigorous  forms,  Rupesttis  Mission,  Rupestris  du  Lot; 
then  a  second  group:  Rupestris  Ganzin,  Rupestris  Martin, 
etc.,  all  very  vigorous  and  meritorious. 

The  second  principal  group  is  formed  of  all  the  Rupestris 
with  large  leaves,  much  larger  than  those  of  the  preceding 
forms  when  grown  in  similar  soil,  of  bushy  habit,  with 
numerous  ramifications;  leaves  folded  along  the  mid-rib,  a 
little  more  open  and  less  imbricated  on  the  branches.  Most 
of  these  Rupestris  are  very  vigorous,  and  have  large  canes. 
We  subdivide  this  group  into: — 

ist.  Rupestris  with  Jarge  thick  leaves,  very  dark-green 
on  the  upper-face,  slightly  honeycomb  structure,  open. 
Ex.:  Rupestris  a  feuilles  metalliques  or  R.  Metallica, 
Rupestris  a  pousses  viollacees,  etc. 

2nd.  Rupestris  with  large  leaves,  fleshy  and  very  shining, 
open  and  sometimes  thrown  back  at  the  edge,  often  very 
goffered  in  structure  between  the  principal  and  secondary  ribs. 
Ex. :  Rupestris  Ecole,  Rupestris  de  Fortworth,  etc. 

3rd.  Rupestris  with  very  large  leaves,  plain,  nearly  as 
wide  as  long,  non-bushy  habit.  These  Rupestris  have 
certainly  been  subject  to  hybridization  with  other  species, 
although  we  mention  them  as  pure  Rupestris.  Ex. : 
Rupestris  Kansas,  Rupestris  No.  62  of  Jceger,  etc. 

Mazade  has  published  a  monograph  of  great  value  in  the 
Revue  de  Viticulture,  dealing  only  with  meritorious  forms  of 
Rupestris,  from  this  monograph  most  of  the  following  infor- 
mation is  taken,  the  forms  being  classed  in  three  groups: — 
i st.     Rupestris  of  bushy  habit,  leaves  with   slightly 
undulating     margins,      regularly     folded     along 
the  mid-rib;      usually   small.        General   appear- 
ance yellowish.       Ex.:     Rupestris  Ganzin. 
2nd.     Rupestris  of  erect  habit,  principal  ramifications 
only    trailing    on    the    ground;      leaves    slightly 
folded      along      the      mid-rib;      petiolar      sinus 
bracket   shape.     Ex.:      Rupestris   du   Lot. 
3rd.     Rupestris   of   trailing   habit,    leaves   with   dark 
metallic        sheen.          Ex. .     Rupestris     Mission, 
Rupestris    Martin,    Rupestris    Metallica,    Rupes- 
ris    de    Fortworth. 


CEPAGES. 


18 
16 
18 
18 
18 
16 
18 
18 
18 
16 
18 
16 
18 
16 
18 
18 
18 
17 


The  following  table  shows  the  value  of  the  phylloxera 
resistance,  in  the  same  slightly  fertile  clay  limestone  soil, 
of  diverse  forms  of  Rupestris  studied  at  the  same  age: — 

Resistance. 

Rupestris  Mission 
Rupestris  du  Lot 
Rupestris    Ganzin  .  . 

Rupestris    Martin 
Rupestris  a  pousses  violacees 
Rupestris    Metallica 
Rupestris  Ecole 

Rupestris  de  Fortworth  (form  described) 
Rupestris  de  Kansas 
Rupestris  No.  62  of  Jaeger 
Rupestris  Y  (Couderc) 
Rupestris  x   (Couderc) 
Rupestris  Arkansas  (Jaeger) 
Rupestris  of  Cleburne  (Jaeger) 
Rupestris  No.  66  (Jaeger) 
Rupestris  du  Texas  (Jaeger) 
Rupestris  No.  64  (Jaeger) 
Rupestris  No.  65  (Jaeger) 

Rupestris  Mission. — This  form  of  Rupestris  grows  at  the 
School  of  Agriculture,  Montpellier,  where  it  was  imported 
in  1887,  and  which  alone  has  per- 
sisted with  vigour  and  remarkably 
large  trunk,  and  always  green  leaves, 
in  a  plot  of  Rupestris  and  Riparia 
X  Rupestris,  planted  in  a  very  dry, 
slightly  fertile,  clay -limestone  soil. 
Its  habit  is  well  spread,  the  canes 
strong  and  long,  internodes  of 
medium  length,  secondary  ramifi- 
cations relatively  few,  short  and 
slender,  young  shoots  smooth,  shin- 
ing and  vinous-yellow.  The  lignified 
canes  clear  hazel  colour,  pinkish 
near  the  nodes,  which  are  straight, 
cylindrical,  and  only  slightly  prom- 
inent. Leaves  (Fig.  32)  rather 
small,  wider  than  long,  symmetri- 
cal; they  are,  and  this  is  charac- 
teristic, deeply  folded  along  the 
mid-rib,  with  the  two  margins  of 
the  limb  folded  a  little  inwards 
above  the  plane  of  the  leaf,  the  under  side  of  the  leaf 
turned,  and  showing  in  front ;  completely  glabrous ;  upper-face 


u 


f 


Fig.  32.— Leaf  of  V. 
Rupestris  Mission. 


86 


AMERICAN  VINES. 


glaucous     green,     rather     light;     under-face,     yellow-green; 
two  series  of  indentations,  wide  and  short;     petiolar  sinus 


Fig-  33- — Petiolar  Sinus  of  Rupestris  Mission. 

bracket-shape  (Fig.  33).    Petiole  yellowish-pink,  rather  long 

and   slender. 

Rupestris  du  Lot. — This  grafting  stock  is  one  of  the  most 

meritorious,  and  the  most  employed  actually  in  reconstitution 

on  account  of  its  adaptation 
to  certain  calcareous  soils; 
it  has  numerous  synonyms, 
but  we  will  retain  that  of 
Rupestris  du  Lot  on  the 
ground  of  priority.  It  was 
first  described  by  Millardet 
and  de  Grasset.  It  is  also 
called  Rupestris  Phenomene 
or  Phenomene  du  Lot, 
Rupestris  Sijas,  Rupestris 
Monticola,  Rupestris  Saint- 
Georges  erige,  Rupestris 
Lacastelle,  Rupestris  Coli- 
neau,  Rupestris  Reich,  but 
all  these  names,  which  are 
only  synonyms,  were  given 
or  at  least  printed,  after  that 
of  Rupestris  du  Lot.  We 


Fig.  34. — Leaf  of  V.  Rupestris  du  Lot. 


must  not  omit  to  state  that  Sijas  was  one  of  the  first,  if  not 
the  first,  to  isolate,  in  iSyg,  this  Rupestris  in  his  vineyard 


Fig-  35- — Petiolar  Sinus  of  Rupestris  du  Lot. 

at   Montferrier    (Herault).      The  name  Rupestris  Monticola 
is   entirely   erroneous,   as  it  has  never  been   demonstrated 


CEPAGES.  87 

that  the  V.  Rupestris  has  had  any  relations  with  the  V. 
Monticola  and  this  name  can  only  lead  to  regrettable  con- 
fusion. The  distinctive  characters  of  Rupestris  du  Lot, 
according  to  Mazade,  are  as  follows: — "Stem  very  strong, 
of  forcible  vigour;  habit  erect  (the  principal  ramifications 
only  trailing  on  the  ground);  canes  knotty,  much  ramified; 
inter-nodes  short;  leaves  (Fig.  34)  very  slightly  folded  along 
the  mid-rib,  undulating  margins,  brilliant,  with  metallic 
sheen,  relatively  thin;  petiolar  sinus  bracket-shaped  (Fig. 35); 
indentation  irregular,  well  defined,  relatively  acute,  that 
forming  the  terminal  lobe  long  and  pointed.  Leaves  of 
terminal  ramifications  occasionally  extremely  small;  apex 
of  the  shoots  bronzed.  Under  the  influence  of  excessive 
drought  the  leaves  become  folded  along  the  mid-rib  and  the 
metallic  sheen  disappears;  roots  a  little  less  slender  than 
those  of  most  other  Rupestris." 

The  resistance  to  phylloxera  of  the  Rupestris  du  Lot  has 
sometimes  been  doubted;  its  roots  show,  in  certain  circum- 
stances, numerous  nodosities,  and  occasionally  tuberosities, 
but  these  lesions  are  excoriated  at  a  favorable  time,  and 
never  penetrate  to  the  heart  of  the  root;  they  have  no,  or 
only  comparatively  insignificant  action  on  the  really  remark- 
able vigour  of  this  grafting-stock  when  in  suitable  soil. 
Phylloxera  galls  have  never  been  found  on  the  leaves  of  the 
Rupestris  du  Lot;  when  perforated  by  the  phylloxera  the 
wound  is  shown  by  a  deviation  of  the  ribs,  but  the  perforated 
tissues  do  not  become  galls. 

The  extraordinary  vigour  of  the  Rupestris  du  Lot  in  the 
generality  of  soils,  its  positive  resistance  to  chlorosis  in  cal- 
careous soils,  its  good  growth  in  poor  soils,  and  even  in 
compact,  siliceous,  or  clay  soils,  where  it  grows  powerfully  by 
reason  of  its  strong  roots,  have  caused  it  to  be  acknowledged 
a  grafting-stock  of  the  first  order.  It  communicates  to  the 
grafts  which  it  carries  a  powerful  growth,  increasing  with 
the  fertility  of  the  soil.  In  extremely  rich  soils,  if  its  excess 
of  vigour  is  not  checked  by  appropriate  pruning,  non-setting 
of  the  berries  may  result,  but  this  inconvenience  is  of  little 
importance,  as  it  may  be  easily  remedied  This  relative  fault 
does  not  occur  in  poor  soils,  which  are  also  those  for  which 
the  Rupestris  du  Lot  should  be  preferred. 

The  ungrafted  Rupestris  du  Lot  is  always  unfertile.  A 
form  very  similar  to  the  Rupestris  du  Lot  in  its  exterior 
characters,  which  has  been  called  Rupestris  du  Lot  femelle 


88 


AMERICAN  VINES. 


rr. 


or   Rupestris   monticola  femelle,   is   fructiferous;   but   differs 

essentially  in  its  less  perfect  qualities  of    vigour  and  resis- 
tance in  calcareous  soils. 

Rupestris    Ganzin. — This    form,    according    to     Millardet, 

who  studied  and  named  it,  had  its  origin  in  Texas,  from 

whence    it    was   imported    about    1874    by    Charles    Martin. 

Dr.   Davin  and  G.  Couderc  first  noticed,     multiplied,     and 

then  distributed  it       In   1880,  we    had   an   opportunity    of 

studying  it  at  Ganzin 's  It 
is  one  of  the  Rupestris  which 
had  been  extensively  propa- 
gated in  suitable  soils;  but 
is  now  actually  discarded  on 
account  of  its  inferiority  to 
Rupestris  Martin,  which  is 
superior  to  it  in  similar 
soil. 

Its  characters  are — stump 
vigorous,  trunk  rather  large; 
young  shoots  of  a  dark 
reddish  violet  and  shining; 
secondary  ram  Jications 
rather  numerous,  giving  to 
the  stump  a  somewhat^ 
bushy  appearance.  Canes 
fairly  large,  sinuous,  inter- 
nodes  rather  long,  lively 
chestnut  colour  at  maturity. 
Leaves  (Fig.  36)  of  medium 
dimensions,  a  little  wider 
than  long,  sub-trilobed, 

slightly  folded  along  the   mid-rib,   symmetrical;   upper-face 

rather  light    glaucous    green 

and  slightly  shining;  under- 

face    pale    green    and    dull; 

two     series     of     well-defined 

teeth;     petiolar     sinus   (Fig 

37)     deep     open     V     shape; 

ribs       strong,        prominent, 

dull     rose     colour     for     the 

greater  part  of  their  length  on  the  upper-face.       Petiole  red, 

rather  strong,  with  a  well-marked  groove  bordered  with  short 

stiff  hair. 


Pig.  36. — Leaf  of  Rupestris  Ganzin. 


Fig-  37- — Petiolar  Sinus  of  Rupestris 
Ganzin. 


CEPAGES. 


89 


Rupestris  Martin. — Form  named  by  Couderc.  The  best 
of  all  Rupestris,  in  our  opinion,  for  dry,  pebbly,  non-cal- 
careous and  clay -siliceous  soils,  and  also  one  of  the  grafting- 
stocks  having  the  highest  resistance  to  phylloxera. 


Fig.  38. — Leaf  of  Rupestris  Martin. 

Stump  vigorous,  trunk  large;  young  shoots  vinous  red, 
and  shining;  secondary  ramifications  fairly  numerous;  canes 
large,  sinuous,  of  a  dark  chestnut,  dull;  internodes  rather 
short.  Leaves  (Fig.  38)  medium,  as  wide  as  long,  folded 
along  the  mid-rib,  goffered, 
structure  at  the  centre,  the 
margins  undulating,  dull 
glaucous  green  on  the  upper- 
face,  lighter  green  a  little 
shining  under-face ;  petiolar 

sinUS     (Fig.  39)     wide    V    Shape;     Fig-  39.— Petiolar  Sinus  of  Rupestris 

two  series  of  large  teeth;    ribs 

vinous  red  at  their  insertion  at  the  upper-face,  with  rather 

long  hairs  at  the  angles  formed  by  their  insertion.       Petiole 

short  and  slender,  of  a  dirty  vinous  red  near  the  cane,  groove 

wide. 


AMERICAN  VINES. 


Rupestris  Metallic  a. — This  assemblage  of  forms  is  also 
called  Rupestris  a  feuilles  metalliques,  Rupestris  metallique, 
Rupestris  a  feuilles  plombees,  Rupestris  Saubens,  Rupes- 
tris Giraud,  and  is  not 
without  merit.  If  the 
Rupestris  du  Lot  did 
not  exist,  it  would  cer- 
tainly be  the  Rupestris 
Metallica  which  would 
have  been  most  prop- 
agated in  clay  cal- 
careous soils,  where 
the  Rupestris  du  Lot 
actually  occupies,  and 
will  occupy,  a  more 
and  more  predominant 
place.  The  vigour  of 
the  Rupestris  Metal- 
lica is  a  little  inferior 
to  that  of  the  Rupes- 
tris du  Lot;  their  re- 
sistance to  the  phyl- 
loxera, which  they  owe 
to  their  positive  rela- 
tion to  the  Mustang, 

Fig.  40.— Leaf  of  Rupestris  Metallica.          and       On       which       depends 

slightly   their  relative   inferiority   of  resistance   to   drought, 
will  make  one  always  prefer  the  Rupestris  du  Lot. 

Here  is  the  description  given  by  Mazade  of  one  of  the 
best  forms  of  Rupestris  Metallica: — "Stump  vigorous. 
Leaves  (Fig.  40)  orbicular, 
brilliant ,  parchment-like , 
very  thick,  hard;  metallic 
sheen;  slightly  folded  along 
the  mid-rib,  margins  com- 
pletely plane;  very  small 
difference  in  dimensions 

between   the   leaves    on    the  </7  T\ 

principal   as   compared   with  || 

the   secondary  ramifications.       Fig.  4i.— Petioiar  Sinus  of  Rupestris 
Indentations     regular,      saw  Metallica. 

shape;    petiole    forming    an    acute    angle    with    the    limb, 
which  gives  to  the  vertical  branches  a  special  appearance  of 


CEPAGES.  91 

stiffness;  petiolar  sinus  (Fig.  41)  deep  open  V  shape.  Tufts 
of  down  disseminated  on  the  canes  and  petioles;  whitish 
buds.  Young  roots  red.  This  Rupestris  is  probably  a  hybrid 
of  Rupestris  and  Mustang.  The  tomentum  which  covers  the 
buds,  the  numerous  tufts  of  down  disseminated  on  the 
canes,  the  colour  and  texture  of  the  leaves,  gives  a  resem- 
blance to  certain  forms  of  Champin.  The  Rupestris  Metal- 
lica  is  very  vigorous,  and  grows  well  on  the  dry  hills  of  the 
environs  of  Montpellier." 

Rupestris  with  violet  shoots. — Stump  of  less  vigour  than 
those  of  the  preceding  forms  and  less  meritorious,  defoliation 
precocious,  habit  bushy.  Canes  large,  hazel  colour,  with 
darker  lines  at  their  point  of  insertion;  young  shoots  violet. 
Leaves  large,  a  little  longer  than  wide,  slightly  thin;  petiolar 
sinus  open,  with  straight  sides;  indentations  rather  long  and 
acute,  in  two  series;  rather  dark  green  on  upper-face. 
Petiole,  with  very  pronounced  groove,  violet-coloured. 

Rupestris  Ecole. — This  very  vigorous  form,  with  large 
trunk,  has  existed  in  the  collections  of  the  School  of  Agricul- 
ture, Montpellier,  since  1879;  but  it  is  very  inferior  to 
Rupestris  Martin,  and  like  it,  very  easily  affected  by  cal- 
careous soils.  Stump  and  trunk  very  large,  canes  trailing, 
slightly  bushy;  canes  vinous  rose,  slight  bloom,  bent  at  the 
nodes,  internodes  short.  Leaves  glabrous,  sub-rectangular, 
thick,  folded  along  the  mid-rib,  widely  open,  margin  a 
little  folded  inwards,  crepe-like  structure  between  the  ribs, 
glaucous  green,  slightly  shining  on  the  upper-face,  lighter 
green  and  shining  under-face;  ribs  strong,  green,  thickened 
at  the  level  of  the  petiole;  petiolar  sinus  very  open  U  shape; 
one  series  of  large  teeth,  little  marked.  Petiole  long  and 
strong,  with  large  flat  groove,  colour  dull  vinous-red,  similar 
at  the  origin  of  the  ribs  on  the  upper-face. 

Rupestris  of  Fortworth.  --  This  form,  according  to  Mil- 
lardet,  was  sent,  in  1882,  by  Hermann  Jaeger  of  Neosho,  to 
de  Grasset.  It  comes  from  Fortworth,  in  Texas.  The 
Rupestris  de  Fortworth,  as  it  exists  in  commerce,  represents 
a  group  in  forms,  rather  than  a  typical  form;  they  are  in- 
ferior to  the  Rupestris  du  Lot,  but  are  not  without  value  on 
account  of  their  great  vigour.  Herewith  are  the  characters 
of  one  of  the  most  vigorous  forms : — 

Stump  very  vigorous,  trunk  strong;  young  shoots  rosy ; 
canes  rather  large,  bluish,  clear  hazel  colour,  slight  bloom. 
Leaves  (Fig.  42)  very  large  thick,  light  glaucous  green, 


92 


AMERICAN  VINES. 


shining,  crepe-like  struc- 
ture between  the  ribs, 
well  folded  along  the 
mid-rib,  but  with  mar- 
gins slightly  turning  in- 
wards; light-green  yel- 
low and  shining  under- 
face ;  ribs  transparent 
and  yellow ;  teeth  in  two 
series,  large  and  acute ; 
petiolar  sinus  (Fig.  43) 
deep  large  V  shape 
rounded  at  the  base. 
Petiole  light  rose 
colour. 

We  will  mention 
amongst  other  Rupes- 
tris,  as  being  fairly 
vigorous,  Rupestris 
No.  50,  Rupestris  No. 
66,  Rupestris  No.  62, 
Rupestris  de  Cle- 
burne,  selected  and 
named  by  Herman 
Jaeger  ;  Rupestris 
Arkansas,  Rupestris  du  Territoire  Indien,  Rupestris  Nos.  64, 
65,  and  75,  died  of  chlorosis  at  the  School  of  Agriculture, 
Montpellier,  when  three  years  old  in  the  same  spot  where 
the  Rupestris  Mis- 
sion is  always  very 
vigorous.  The  Ru- 
pestris Jaeger,  Nos. 
62,  64,  65,  66,  68, 
are  the  most  fer- 
tile, but  they  do  \^  y 
not  present,  from 
this  point  of  view, 
much  interest  for 
th  'ne  rard  Fig  43  ~petiolar  Sinus  of  RuPestris  of  Fortworth. 

(c)  Adaptation  and  Culture. — The  V.  Rupestris  occupy, 
in  the  United  States,  a  wide  area  in  the  south,  from  the  point 
of  junction  of  the  Missouri  and  Mississippi  Rivers  up  to  the 
south  of  Texas,  in  a  series  of  soils  which  principally  belong 


Fig.  42. — Leaf  of  Rupestris  of  Fortworth. 


CEPAGES.  93 

to  the  Carboniferous  and  Silurian,  and  partly  to  the  Cam- 
brian, Cretaceous,  and  Eocene.  Instead  of  growing  in  the 
shade  of  virgin  forests  like  most  of  the  other  species,  the 
Rupestris  always  grows  in  very  open  places,  free  from  timber, 
mostly  in  the  beds  of  ravines  exposed  to  the  direct  rays  of  a 
scorching  sun.  The  grounds  where  Rupestris  grows  are  very 
much  drier  and  more  burnt  by  the  sun  than  the  most  arid  of 
the  French  meridional  regions;  but  in  the  United  States  it 
resists  a  temperature  of  --  28°  C.  without  being  affected  by 
the  cold.  In  France,  the  Rupestris  is  the  species  which 
grows  best  in  the  dry  and  least  fertile  soils;  in  the  Valley 
of  the  Rhone,  north  of  Lyons,  in  the  winter,  1890-91,  it 
withstood  cold  as  low  as  —  31°  C.  Its  resistance  to  cold, 
drought,  and  heat  is  well  proved  by  the  numerous  plantations 
of  Rupestris  which  have  been  made  in  France. 

The  Rupestris  grows,  in  the  United  States,  in  slightly 
fertile  soil;  it  is,  with  V.  Berlandieri  and  V.  Monticola, 
the  species  which  grows  most  vigorously  in  the  least  fertile 
soils.  Most  of  the  forms  of  V.  Rupestris,  and  the  most 
numerous  vines  (States  of  Missouri,  Indian  territory,  Arkan- 
sas,) are  found  in  the  beds  of  dry  ravines  where  the  soil 
is  formed  of  rounded  siliceous  pebbles,  more  or  less  large, 
mixed  with  a  very  plastic  red  clay;  the  number  of  pebbles 
is  sometimes  so  considerable  on  the  surface  of  the  ravines 
that  they  appear  to  completely  constitute  the  soil  and 
through  them  the  large  trunk  of  this  rustic  stumpy  species 
emerges.  In  other  regions,  the  pebbles  are  formed  of 
siliceous  tufa,  more  or  less  decomposed,  constituting  a 
still  drier  and  more  unfertile  soil.  In  the  south-west  of 
Missouri,  the  soils  have  the  same  constitution,  but  fragments 
of  Devonian  limestone,  hard,  compact,  and  crystalline, 
replace  the  siliceous  pebbles;  finally,  in  the  Rupestris 
regions  of  the  north  of  Texas  (Fortworth,  Cleburne),  the 
limestone  pebbles  have  been  formed  from  cretaceous  rocks 
mixed  with  a  blackish  clay  soil,  but  the  fragments  of  rock 
are  always  hard,  never  soft  or  chalky.  It  was  from  these 
regions  that  the  Rupestris  Mission  and  Rupestris  Metallica 
came;  it  is  also,  probably,  in  those  places  that  the  Rupestris 
du  Lot  was  found  amongst  the  Rupestris  Fortworth.  When 
in  the  United  States,  a  few  wild  vines  have  been  found  by 
chance  in  the  soils  formed  by  the  decomposition  of  chalks,  or 
in  yellow  soft  marls,  they  have  a  feeble  vigour,  and  often 
chlorosis. 


94  AMERICAN  VINES. 

Herewith  the  composition  of  two  American  soils  (analyzed 
by  B.  Chauzit),  representing  the  type  where  the  Rupestris 
grows  most  vigorously,  and  in  the  greatest  profusion;  these 
analysis  were  made  on  the  fine  soil,  after  mechanical  separa- 
tion of  the  rounded  siliceous  pebbles,  which  formed  70  to  80 
per  cent,  of  the  total  mass. 

No.  1  No.  2 

Clay        ..              ..              ..               ..    81.72  ..  64.60 

Sand       ..              ..              ..              ..    16.32  ..  32.85 

Carbonate    of    Lime           ..              ..      4.71  ..  2.27 

These  properties  of  adaptation  become  practically  identical 
in  France,  as  proved  by  numerous  examples  of  reconstitu- 
tion  which  have  been  done  with  Rupestris,  and  the  value 
of  this  species  from  that  aspect  is  nowadays  admitted. 
The  Rupestris  are  not  grafting-stock  for  chalky  soils, 
in  the  soft  and  friable  white  Cretaceous  chalks  of  the 
Charente,  of  Saumurois,  in  the  chalky  marls  of  the 
Garumnien,  and  a  number  of  soils  where  carbonate  of 
lime  is  abundant  and  soluble,  all  the  forms  of  Rupestris 
are  rapidly  attacked  by  chlorosis,  become  stunted,  and  die. 
The  Rupestris  is  one  of  the  species  most  easily  affected  by 
chlorosis  when  in  chalky  soils,  it  turns  yellow  sooner  than 
the  Riparia.  In  compact  clays  (Rupestris  du  Lot  excepted), 
in  all  humid  soils,  the  other  species  are  superior  to  it; 
it  grows  in  the  driest  and  most  unfertile  soils;  and  under 
these  conditions  it  is  superior  to  all  other  species,  and  to 
all  other  American  grafting-stocks. 

As  we  have  seen  from  the  figures  already  given,  this 
species  has  a  very  high  resistance  to  phylloxera;  its  vigour 
is  very  great,  its  trunk  very  strong,  much  stronger  than 
that  of  the  Riparia,  without  difference  in  thickness  between 
the  stock  and  the  scion ;  the  grafts  are  carried  with  great 
vigour,  are  fructiferous,  and  mature  early;  the  affinity  of 
its  grafting  to  the  European  vines  is  nearly  always  equally 
good.  Finally,  the  Rupestris  grows  well  from  cuttings  or 
grafted-cuttings. 

The  soils  where  the  V.  Rupestris  has  succeeded,  and  will 
succeed,  are  very  numerous  in  the  vineyard  districts  of 
France.  There  are  some  districts  which  will  be  entirely 
reconstituted  by  the  Rupestris,  the  Loire-Infe'rieure,  and 
the  Maine-et-Loire  (Saumurois  excepted),  for  example.  In 
all  the  pebbly,  pebbly-siliceous,  or  hard  limestone  soils, 
should  they  be  on  the  rich  or  dry  hills  or  slightly  fertile 


CEPAGES.  95 

plains,  all  the  siliceous  soils,  with  more  or  less  large 
particles,  will  be  reconstituted  with  the  V.  Rupestris;  and 
soils  of  these  natures  are  very  numerous  in  the  viticultural 
regions  of  France.  Such  are,  for  example,  the  soils  of  the 
Alpine  diluvium,  the  diluvium  of  the  Durance  (Crau),  and 
the  dilivium  of  the  Pyrenees  in  the  south  of  France;  the 
modern  pebbly  alluvium  of  the  Rhone,  those  of  the  garigues 
of  the  Oxfordian  and  the  Corallian,  of  certain  hard  lime- 
stones of  the  Molasse  of  the  same  region;  those  of  the 
Silurian  in  the  north  of  France,  the  hard  and  siliceous 
schists,  the  pebbly,  hard  limestone  of  the  Carboniferous; 
those  of  the  pebbly-granitic  soils  at  the  edge  of  the  Central 
Plateau  (Aveyron,  Beaujolais);  those  of  the  hard  lime- 
stones of  the  Jurassic,  Oxfordian,  and  Corallian  of  the 
Rhone  hills,  and  of  the  Bourgogne;  the  tertiary,  pebbly 
sands  of  the  Gironde,  the  graves,  the  ancient  alluvia  of 
the  Charente  and  Rhone  with  hard  calcareous  and  siliceous 
fragments  mixed,  etc. 

The  V.  Rupestris,  as  already  stated,  grows  well  from 
cuttings  or  grafted-cuttings.  It  is  possible,  with  special 
care,  to  arrive  at  as  large  a  strike  comparatively  as  with 
the  most  perfect  grafting-stock, — the  Riparia  and  Vialla, 
for  examples.  The  successful  strikes  of  grafts  and  grafted 
cuttings  have  reached,  in  many  nurseries,  from  80  to  90 
per  cent.  Some  nurserymen  consider  that  the  success  of 
grafting  with  Rupestris  is  more  perfect  than  with  other 
grafting-stock,  on  account  of  the  vigour  of  the  grafts  and 
the  perfection  of  the  knitting.  However,  the  Rupestris  is 
very  difficult  to  graft  when  at  an  advanced  age.  In  fact,  to 
facilitate  the  growth  of  the  cuttings  and  the  grafted  cuttings 
of  the  Rupestris,  they  must  be  carefully  barked  and  the  eyes 
neatly  excised  on  the  part  that  is  underground.  We  will 
specially  insist  on  this  when  we  treat  of  grafting. 

The  V.  Rupestris,  obviously  ungrafted,  is  not  subject  to 
cryptogamic  diseases  of  the  leaves;  the  canes  often  exfoliate 
early  at  their  base,  but  this  is  a  natural  phenomenon  which 
is  constantly  observed  of  these  vines  in  their  wild  state  in 
America,  but  which  has  no  action  on  the  great  vigour  of 
this  species.  The  black  spots  that  are  often  observed  on  the 
leaves,  and  attributed  to  melanose,  are  only  numerous  on 
the  less  vigorous  and  valueless  varieties,  and  never  produce 
any  weakening  of  the  more  perfect  varieties.  The  Rupestris 
in  a  general  way,  is  very  subject  to  pourridi£  in  damp  soils; 


96  AMERICAN  VINES. 

it  is  the  most  subject  to  it  of  all  the  American  species,  and 
on  no  account  should  be  planted  where  there  is  stagnant 
water.*  We  will  see  the  wide  importance  that  the  Rupestris 
had  as  an  element  in  hybridization,  on  account  of  its  primor- 
dial qualities  of  vigour  and  resistance  to  phylloxera. 

But  amongst  the  diverse  forms  of  Rupestris  that  have 
been  mentioned  we  must  state  precisely,  from  the  aspect  of 
adaptation  and  reconstitution,  which  are  to  be  preferred  in 
different  soils.  Only  the  Rupestris  du  Lot,  Rupestris  Martin, 
and  Rupestris  Mission  should  actually  be  cultivated.  The 
Rupestris  Ganzin,  for  example,  is  inferior  to  the  Rupestris 
Martin  as  to  vigour,  but  has  the  same  qualities  of  adapta- 
tion. The  Rupestris  Metallic  a  and  most  of  the  best  forms  of 
Rupestris  de  Fortworth  are  not  equal  to  the  Rupestris  du  Lot, 
which  succeeds  in  the  same  surroundings. 

The  Rupestris  Martin,  on  account  of  its  great  resistance 
to  phylloxera,  must  a1  ways  be  utilized  in  poor  siliceous  or 
pebbly  soils,  containing  little  or  no  limestone. 

The  Rupestris  du  Lot  can  actually  replace  Solonis  and 
Jacquez  in  relatively  calcareous  and  poor  soils,  or  where 
formerly  recourse  was  had  to  these  grafting-stocks,  and  also 
the  Vialla  in  compact  siliceous  soils. 

The  Rupestris  Mission  is  preferable  to  Rupestris  du  Lot 
for  relatively  fertile  soils,  where  the  last-named,  through  its 
excess  of  vigour,  urges  the  grafts  to  non -setting;  or  also  in 
the  soils  where  certain  French  vines,  grafted  on  the  Rupestris 
du  Lot,  are  normally  subject  to  non -set  ting,  and  do  not  yield 
a  regular  or  abundant  crop. 

The  Rupestris  Metallica  has  a  greater  resistance  to 
chlorosis  than  the  Rupestris  Martin  or  Rupestris  Ganzin, 
'but  is  not  equal  in  this  respect  to  the  Solonis. 

V.     MONTICOLA. 

(a)  Description  (General  Characters). — Stump  little  vig- 
orous, semi-climbing  habit,  trunk  slender:  wood  of  the  year 
ramified,  shining,  of  light-brown  mahogany  colour 
much  striated,  tendrils  discontinuous.  Leaves  (Figs.  44 
and  45)  small,  as  wide  as  long,  sub-cordiform,  almost  entire, 
slightly  folded  along  the  mid-rib;  petiolar  sinus  deep,  with 
overlapping  sides;  teeth  blunt,  obtuse,  normal  to  the  limb, 
which  is  thick  and  slightly  undulating  (bubbly) :  upper-face 

*Rupestris  has  done  well  in  soils  where  the  water  level  is  close  to  the  surface  6  months 
in  the  year. — (Translations  from  a  letter  of  L.  Ravaz.) 


deep  green,  shining; 
under-face  lighter 
green,  as  if  v  a  r  - 
nished;  young  leaves 
rosy  green.  Bunch 
small  berries  sub- 
medium  spherical, 
black  or  deep  grey, 
taste  clean  and  sweet. 
Seeds  (Fig.  46) 
medium  or  large, 
sub-spherical;  beak 
short  and  thick  ; 
chalaze  sub-orbicu- 
lar: r  a  p  h  e  in  the 
shape  of  a  very 
prominent  fine  cord, 
distinctly  separated 
from  the  chalaze. 
Roots  hard,  long, 
fairly  slender. 

(b)  Varieties,  Adap- 
tation   and    Culture. 

-  Until  compara- 
tively recently  only 
a  very  few  varieties 
of  V.  Monticola  were 
known,  or,  on  ac- 
count of  their  feeble 
normal  vigour  were 
valueless  for  recon- 
stitution.  The  recent 
explorations  made 
by  T.  V.  Munson  in 
the  extreme  north- 
west of  Texas  en- 
abled him  to  discover 
very  vigorous  forms 
in  1891,  and  more  re- 
cently in  1894,  in  a 
new  exploration  he 
accomplished  with 
Salomon,  jun.  The 


Fig.  44. — Leaf  of  V.  Monticola  (upper-face), 


Fig-  45-— Leaf  of  V.  Monticola  (under-face). 


9  AMERICAN    VINES. 

varieties  which  they  brought  back,  and  which  have  been 
cultivated  since  1893  and  1895,  have  a  vigour  and  strength 
of  development  previously  unknown  in  V.  Monticola.  We 
cannot  yet  pronounce  an  opinion  on  their 
cultural  value  and  adaptation,  but  on  ac- 
count of  their  qualities  of  resistance  to 
phylloxera,  chlorosis,  and  drought,  which 
Fig.  46.— Seed  of  the  species  and  the  weak  forms  already  cul- 
v.  Monticola.  tjvated  in  France  have  shown,  on  account, 
also,  of  the  dry,  unfertile,  and  calcareous  soils,  in  which  the 
vine  grows  in  Texas,  we  may  hope  that  the  vigorous 
forms  will,  in  future,  have  a  great  value  for  calcareous 
and  chalky  dry  soils.  The  V.  Monticola  No.  i,  which 
has  been  cultivated  at  the  School  of  Agriculture,  Monti 
pellier,  for  three  years  already,  shows  an  exceptional 
vigour,  and  remains  -  of  a  fine  green  colour  in  a  soi- 
liable  to  cause  chlorosis.  The  V.  Monticola  Salomon 
resembles  it  in  its  characters,  but  appears  to  be  even  more 
vigorous. 

The  V.  Monticola  (V.  Texana  or  V.  Foexeana)  occurs 
in  a  very  limited  geographical  area  in  the  centre  of 
Texas,  where  it  forms  a  circle  in  almost  all  mountainous 
country.  The  V.  Monticola  grows  exclusively  on  low  moun- 
tains, and  only  on  the  upper  part  of  their  slopes,  or  on  the 
extensive  table-lands  crowning  the  hills  of  Texas.  The 
climatic  characteristics  of  these  regions  is  an  extreme 
drought;  with  a  fall  of  temperature  sometimes  very  great 
in  winter,  — 20°  C.,  and  temperatures  rising  up  to  42°  C. 
The  V.  Monticola  always  remains,  even  in  the  most  arid 
and  unfertile  soils,  of  a  fine  green  shining  colour. 

The  V.  Monticola  does  not  grow,  like  V  Berlandieri,  in 
white  chalky  soft  and  friable  soils,  but  if  grows  in  soils 
where  the  percentage  of  limestone  is  fairly  high,  and  which 
have  an  analogy  with  the  Jurassic  groies  of  the  Charentes, 
in  which  most  other  grafting-stocks  become  chlorosed. 
The  soil  of  the  table-lands  of  the  county  of  Bell,  in  Texas, 
where  V.  Monticola  is  most  abundant,  is  constituted  of 
laminated  (or  bladed)  fragments  of  fairly  compact  lime- 
stone, of  a  lithographic  texture,  slight  yellow  or  whitish, 
with  siliceous  incrustations ;  they  are  intermixed  with  mellow 
blackish  soil,  containing  numerous  small  fragments  o  soft 
limestone  and  a  few  siliceous  concrteions.  According  to 
analyses  made  by  B.  Chauzit,  one  of  these  Texas  soils  con- 


CEPAGES.  99 

tained  65  per  cent,  of  stone  and  25  per  cent,  of  fine  soil,  con- 
taining:— 

Clay  .  .          .  .          . .          46.4  per  cent. 

Sand  3.5       " 

Limestone  .  .  .  .          48.9 

The  V.  Monticola  has  probably  a  very  great  resistance  to 
phylloxera,  and  seems  rather  difficult  to  propagate  from 
cuttings. 

The  V.  Monticola  has  yielded  a  fairly  large  number  of 
wild  hybrids  with  the  species  natural  to  Texas,  which  we 
will  study.  Some  viticulturists  have  attributed  to  many 
vigorous  forms  of  Rupestris  an  hybridizing  influence  of 
V.  Monticola;  this  seems  very  difficult  to  admit  generally, 
especially  if  we  take  into  consideration  that  the  V.  Rupestris 
and  V.  Monticola  live,  in  their  wild  state,  in  regions  very  far 
apart. 

The  V.  Monticola  is,  without  doubt,  an  excellent  element 
in  the  creation  of  Franco-American  hybrids  especially 
if  combined  with  varieties  of  great  vigour  and  strong 
development. 

The  principal  forms  of  V.  Monticola  selected  and  named  in 
the  collection  at  the  School  of  Agriculture,  Montpellier,  are 
actually  fairly  numerous;  we  will  only  give  the  essential 
characters  of  the  principal  forms.  Amongst  these,  the 
Monticola  Salomon  and  Monticola  Munson  No.  I  are  very 
vigorous,  leaves  intense  green,  canes  strong  and  long,  trunk 
stout.  They  appear  to  be  the  best,  and  are  probably  the 
most  resistant  to  chlorosis. 

Monticola  Salomon. — Stump  very  vigorous;  canes  strong, 
long;  rather  numerous  and  erect  ramifications;  internodes 
fairly  short,  finely  striated,  of  a  light-green  colour  in  the 
herbaceous  state,  of  a  brownish -yellow  colour  with  deeper 
stripes  when  lignified;  young  leaves  bright  green,  very 
shining;  adult  leaves  (Fig.  47)  relatively  large,  entire,  exces- 
sively thick,  sub-cordiform,  very  wide  towards  the  petiole, 
terminal  lobe  triangular,  well-defined,  folded  along  the  three 
principal  ribs,  with  margins  irregularly  rising  towards  the 
top  forming  a  cup;  petiolar  sinus,  very  deep,  with  sides  tan- 
gent or  overlapping;  upper-face  intense  green,  as  if  var- 
nished; under-face  lighter  green,  very  lustrous;  ribs  very 
stout,  with  fluffy  hair  at  the  points  of  bifurcation.  Petiole 
very  short,  forming  a  right  angle  with  the  limb,  with  patches 


IOO 


AMERICAN  VINES. 


Fig.  47. — Leaf  of  Monticola  Salomon. 

of  fluffy  hairs  disseminated  on  it;  teeth  short,  wide,  well 
denned,  in  two  series. 

Monticola  Munson,  No.  i. — Vigorous  form,  differing  from 
the  preceding  by  its  leaves  (Fig.  48)  having  irregularly  and 
unevenly  undulating  margins,  limb  relatively  thick,  deep 
green;  numerous  depressed  hairs  on  the  summit  of  the  her- 
baceous shoots,  giving  a  whitish  tint  to  the  plant. 

Monticola  Munson,  No.  2. — This  form  closely  resembles 
the  preceding  in  the  deep  green  tint  of  its  foliage,  and  the 
general  characters  of  the  leaf,  but  is  a  little  less  vigorous. 


CEPAGES. 


101 


Fig.  48. — Leaf  of  V.  Monticola  Munson,  No.  i. 

Monticola  Munson,  No.  3. — A  form  of  medium  vigour, 
characterized  by  the  general  light  tint  of  its  leaves  (Fig. 
49)  of  a  yellowish -green,  elongated  (like  an  arrow  barb), 
flat,  very  lustrous. 

Monticola  Foexeana. — One  of  the  first  forms  introduced 
into  France;  very  inferior  to  those  previously  studied,  on 
account  of  its  small  vigour;  characterized  by  its  relatively 
large  leaves,  thick,  of  a  deep  and  very  brilliant  green, 
limb  undulating;  petiolar  sinus  almost  closed;  teeth  wide 
and  very  short ;  wood  purple-red  when  lignified. 

Monticola  Texana. — Type  of  the  earlier  introduced  forms 
still  in  existence  in  France;  of  very  feeble  vigour  and 
without  cultural  value.  Leaves  (Figs.  44  and  45)  small, 
light  yellowish-green,  parchment-like;  petiolar  sinus  open, 
almost  flat;  teeth  relatively  acute. 


102 


AMERICAN  VINES. 


Fig.  49. — Leaf  of  V.  Monticola  Munson,  No.  3. 

V.     ARIZONICA. 

The  V.  Arizonica  is  not  much  known  in  France,  and  has 
not  been  used  for  reconstitution,  although  it  has  existed  for 
a  number  of  years  in  vine  collections.  This  species 
resembles  V  Calif ornica  by  its  young  leaves ;  its  adult  leaves 
(Fig.  50)  glabrous,  thick  and  small,  and  its  bushy 
habit,  gives  it  an  appearance  comparable  to  that  of 
Rupestris;  its  seeds  (Fig.  51)  distinguish  it  from  V.  Cali- 
f ornica,  but  the  numerous  hybrids  existing  between  V.  Cali- 
f ornica  and  V.  Arizonica  may  often  lead  to  confusion. 


CEPAGES. 


103 


Fig.  50. — Leaf  of  V.  Arizonica. 

The    V.     Arizonica     grows     especially     in    the    State    of 
Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  from  the  banks  of   riversjto  the 
highest   and   most   arid   lands,    sometimes   in   very   pebbly, 
dry.  calcareous  soils        It  has  been  propagated,  as  grafting- 
stock,  in  the  soils  of  a  similar  nature  in  Cali- 
fornia,   where  it  is  superior  to  V.   Riparia. 
Cuttings   and    grafted   cuttings   root    freely, 
and    throw   less  suckers  than  V.   Rupestris; 
its    resistance  to    phylloxera  is  rather  high,    Fig  SI  — seed  of 
and  may  be  represented  by  the  number  16.       v-  Arizonica. 
In  the   chalky    soils  of    the   Charente,   where   V.   Arizonica 
has  been  tried,  it  became  slightly  yellow,  without,  however, 
degenerating  in  cottis*       It  is,  therefore,   from  this  point 

*  See  foot  note,  page  19. 


AMERICAN  VINES. 


Fig.  52. — Leaf  of  Riparia  Gloire. 

of  view,  slightly  superior  to  Riparia  and  much  superior  to 
V.  Rupestris,  but  is  very  inferior  to  V.  Berlandieri;  as  far 
as  resistance  to  chlorosis  is  concerned,  it  may  be  classified 
after  V.  Monticola.  ['•* 

This  species  does  not  seem  to  be  destined  to  a  great 
future,  as  in  the  soils  where  it  could  thrive,  the  V.  Ber- 
landieri, V.  Riparia,  and  V.  Rupestris  are  always  superior 
to  it. 

V.  RIPARIA. 

(a)  Description  (General  Characters). — Stump  vigorous, 
trunk  medium,  canes  rather  slender,  varying  in  colour  at 
complete  lignification,  from  purple-red  to  ashy-grey;  tendrils 


CEPAGES. 


105 


Fig.  53- — Leaf  of  Riparia  Grand  Glabre. 

discontinuous.  Leaves:  young,  unfolding  slowly;  adult 
(Figs.  52  and  53),  medium  or  large,  longer  than  wide, 
entire,  the  five  lobes  indicated  by  the  teeth  more  developed; 
two  series  of  acute  and  oblique  indentations;  dark-green 
colour  on  the  upper-face,  lighter  green,  glabrous,  or  slightly 
tomentose  on  the  ribs  of  the  lower-face. 
Bunch  and  berries  small,  spherical,  dark- 
bluish  bloom,  harsh.  Seeds  (Fig.  54)  very 
small;  chalaze  slightly  prominent,  ending 
in  a  rudimentary  raphe.  Roots  long,  thin,  pig. 
and  slender,  very  ramified,  hard. 


\.  54. — Seed   of 
V.  Riparia. 


106  AMERICAN  VINES. 

(b)  Varieties. — The  Riparia  is  certainly  the  American 
vine  which  has  the  greatest  importance  for  the  reconstitu- 
tion  of  vineyards.  It  was  Millardet  who  first,  in  1874, 
attracted  the  attention  of  viticulturists  to  this  species.  In 
conjunction  with  Despetis,  he  pointed  out  the  importance  of 
the  selection  of  forms ;  its  importation  to  France  was  due  to 
Bush  and  Meissner.  It  is  now  well  known  that  the  individual 
variations  of  the  Riparia  are  very  numerous.  The  Riparia 
has  a  very  widely  extended  area  of  distribution  in  America ; 
its  fruit  ripens  early  and  is  easily  disseminated  by  the 
rivers  on  the  banks  of  which  it  grows,  by  birds,  and  even 
winds,  which  transport  the  seeds  widely.  The  Riparia  is, 
besides,  mixed  with  many  other  species,  and,  as  the  period 
of  florescence  of  certain  Riparias  is  almost  continuous  during 
several  months  of  the  year,  many  hybrids  have  been  formed ; 
the  better-defined  characteristics  of  these  hybrids  will  be 
studied.  But  many  of  them  have  only  felt  a  slight  hybridiz- 
ing influence  from  other  species  and  only  present,  in  compari- 
son with  typical  Riparias,  quite  insignificent  differences. 
The  Riparias  with  thick  and  shiny  leaves  are,  probably, 
as  indicated  by  Millardet,  the  result  of  hybridization 
with  V.  Cordifolia,  which,  as  already  stated,  is  nearly  always 
found  associated  with  V.  Riparia.  We  consider  these  most 
meritorious  forms  equal  to  pure  Riparias 

It  may  be  said  that  the  selection  of  Riparias  is  nowadays 
settled  amongst  all  the  vineyards.  Most  of  those  which  have 
been  retained  as  cutting  producers  are  varieties  of  value; 
the  forms  with  small  leaves,  small  trunk,  and  little  vigour 
have  been  gradually  eliminated,  and  are  now  almost  entirely 
discarded. 

Generally  speaking,  as  applies  also  to  the  Rupestris, 
best  Riparias  are  the  most  vigorous,  and  the  most  vigorous 
have  nearly  always  a  large  trunk,  thick  leaves,  large,  shining 
(glabrous  type),  or  a  little  dull  (tomentose  type).  For  recon- 
stitution  it  is  not  indispensable  to  have  recourse  exclusively 
to  the  forms  mentioned,  although  success  is  more  assured  with 
them,  but  we  must  rigorously  exclude  weakly -growing  varieties 
with  small  thin  leaves ;  this  applies  equally  to  the  Rupestris. 

The  Riparias  may  be  classed  in  two  principal  groups : — 

TOMENTOSE  RIPARIAS. 

The  short  abundant  hair  on  the  branches  and  on  the  ribs 
of  the  under-face  is  especially  characteristic;  the  leaves  are 
dark  dull-green  on  the  upper-face;  the  teeth  long,  acute, 


CEPAGES.  107 

and  slightly  oblique  to  the  plane  of  the  limb.  Seeds  small; 
berries  covered  with  bloom;  trunk  much  stronger  than 
that  of  the  glabrous  Riparias.  They  comprise  two 
subdivisions : — 

i st.  Tomentose  Riparias  with  large  leaves,  the  most  vig- 
orous, growing  generally  on  the  cool  parts  of  river  banks; 
they  constitute  excellent  grafting-stocks.  Ex.:  Riparia 
Scribner,  one  of  the  most  vigorous  and  meritorious.  Gen- 
erally speaking,  these  Riparias  grow  better  in  damp  soils 
than  the  glabrous  Riparias;  their  trunk  is  often  very  large. 
The  forms  having  violet  wood  are  more  vigorous  than  those 
with  grey  wood. 

2nd.  The  Tomentose  Riparias  with  small  leaves,  which 
grow  in  dryer  places,  in  the  crevices  of  rocks;  their  leaves 
are  thicker,  of  a  less  intense  green,  and  dull  on  the  upper- 
face;  they  are  little  vigorous  in  the  wild  state. 

GLABROUS     RIPARIAS. 

These  are  very  varied,  and  comprise  two  sub-groups: — 
i  st.  Glabrous  Riparias  with  lobed  leaves. — The  leaves 
have  either  three  or  five  lobes,  sinus  deeply  incised,  generally 
small,  ribs  more  or  less  deep  rose  colour.  Ex.:  V.  Palmata 
of  Vahl.  In  general,  all  the  Riparias  with  lobed  leaves 
have  little  vigour  and  are  inferior  for  culture  to  other  wild 
forms. 

2nd.  Glabrous  Riparias  with  entire  leaves. — The  upper 
lobes  are  detached  by  the  shallow  lateral  triangular  sinus, 
the  other  lobes  are  indicated  by  a  great  prolongation 
of  the  extremities  of  the  teeth.  We  divide  this  sub-group 
into : — 

(a)  Riparias  with  small  leaves;  leaves  dull-green,  slightly 
dark   on   the  upper-face;   teeth   acute   and   oblique   to    the 
plane   of   the   limb;   parenchyma   varying  in    thickness   in- 
dividually; very  subject  to  chlorosis  and  punctuated  anthrac- 
nosis,  and  without  any  value  as  grafting-stock. 

(b)  Riparias  with  large  leaves,  for  the  greater  part  graft- 
ing-stocks of  much  value,  the  most  propagated  in  culture;  they 
may   be    classed   as   follows: — (a)    Glabrous    Riparias   with 
entire  large  leaves,  dull;     (a')  with  thin  leaves, — most  of  the 
forms  of  the  north  belong  to  this  subdivision ;  they  are  some- 
times   very    vigorous,    but    their   trunk   is    of   inferior    size; 
(a")  with  thick  leaves,  the  most  vigorous  and  the  best  grafting- 


108  AMERICAN  VINES. 

stocks  of  the  glabrous  Riparias  with  large  dull  leaves, 
amongst  them  are  preferred  the  Riparia  Baron  Perrier,  Riparia 
with  bronzed  buds,  Riparia  with  violet  wood,  Riparias  Nos.  6 
and  12  of  the  Meissner  collection;  (b)  Riparias  with  large 
entire  leaves,  shining  and  always  thick,  subdivided  into — (b') 
Riparias  with  slightly  round  leaves,  terminal  lobe  obtuse, 
teeth  sub-acute,  the  Riparia  of  the  Indian  Territory;  (b"}  Ri- 
parias with  long  and  shining  leaves,  generally  goffered  in 
structure  between  the  main  ribs,  such  as  Riparia  Scupper- 
nong,  Riparia  Grand  Glabre,  Riparia  Portalis,  or  Gloire  de 
Montpellier.  The  coloration  of  the  wood,  the  acuteness  and 
length  of  the  teeth,  and  coloration  of  the  ribs  differentiate 
the  forms  of  this  second  group.  It  must  be  mentioned  that 
the  nodes  are  frequently  more  flattened  and  the  diaphragms 
thicker  than  in  the  Riparias  with  dull  leaves,  characters 
which,  with  the  shining  leaves,  seem  to  suggest  a  cross  with 
V.  Cordifolia,  with  which  they  grow  side  by  side.  The  Ri- 
parias with  shining  leaves,  on  account  of  their  great  vigour, 
have  the  highest  value  as  grafting-stock  in  good  soils. 

The  following  table  summarizes  the  classification  of  the 
different  forms  of  Riparias: — 

I.  TOMENTOSE    RIPARIAS. 

1st.     Large    leaves.     Ex.:  Riparia    Scribner,    Riparia    geant    or 

tomentose  of  Mas  de  las  Sorres,  Riparia  violet,  etc. 
2nd.     With  small  leaves— 

II.  GLABROUS    RIPARIAS. 

1st.      With  lobed  leaves.     Ex.:  V.  Riparia  var.  Palmata,  etc. 
2nd.     With  entire  leaves. 

A.  With  small  leaves. 

B.  With  large  leaves. 
a.  With  dull  leaves. 
a'     With  thin  leaves. 

a"     With  thick  leaves.     Ex. :  Riparia  Bar  on- Perrier,  Riparia 
with  bronzed  buds,  Riparia  with  violet  wood,  Riparias 
Nos.  6  and  12  Meissner,  etc. 
b.     With  lustrous  and  thick  leaves. 

bf     With  rounded  leaves.    Ex. :  Riparia  Indian  Territory,  etc. 

b"  With  elongated  leaves.  Ex.:  Riparia  Scuppernong , 
Riparia  Portalis  or  Gloire  de  Montpellier,  .Riparia 
Grand  Glabre,  or  Riparia  No.  ij  Meissner,  etc. 

The  following  table  shows  the  respective  value  of  the 
principal  forms  of  V.  Riparia  as  to  their  vigour  and 
resistance  to  the  phylloxera,  from  notes  tak;en  among  the 


CEPAGES.  109 

collection  of  the  School  of  Agriculture,  Montpellier.  where 
these  varieties  of  the  same  age  are  planted  side  by  side  in 
the  same  soil : — 

Resistance.      Vigour. 
Riparia  Scribner 

Riparia  Portalis  or  Glorie  de  Montpellier      ..  18  20 

Riparia  Grand  Glabre  or  No.  13  of  Meissner.  .  18  20 

Riparia  Scuppernong       .  .  .  .  .  .  18  17 

Riparia  Baron-Perrier  .  .  .  .  18  16 

Riparia  tomenteux  geant  ..  ..  18  19 

In  the  Despestis  collection,  growing  in  the  same  ground, 
under  similar  conditions,  the  Riparia  Due  de  Palban  is 
similar  to  the  Riparia  Gloire  de  Montpellier  as  to  vigour 
and  characters,  the  Riparia  de  Beaupre  to  the  Riparia 
tomenteux  geant,  from  the  same  points  of  view.  The  other 
forms  are  inferior.  We  will  mention  the  Riparia  Martineau 
or  Gloire  de  Tourraine,  which  appear  to  us  identical  with 
the  Riparia  Gloire  de  Montpellier. 

We  will  not  describe  the  Riparia  Fabre  or  Martin  des 
Pailleres,  for  although  it  represents  some  good  points  it  is 
not  a  unique  form,  nor  the  Riparia  de  las  Sorres,  which  is 
included  among  the  tomentose  or  glabrous  and  very 
vigorous  Riparias.  We  must,  however,  point  out  among 
these  last- mentioned  a  glabrous  form  selected  by  E.  Durand, 
under  the  name  of  Riparia  de  las  Sorres  Selected,  which  is 
the  most  vigorous  of  all  this  group;  this  Riparia,  planted  in 
r8y6,  had  attained  a  circumference  of  45  cm.  (18  inches)  at 
the  level  of  the  soil  in  1891. 

We  will  only  describe  the  Riparia  Portalis  or  Gloire  de 
Montpellier,  the  Riparia  Grand  Glabre  or  No.  13  of  Meissner, 
which  are,  with  reason,  the  most  esteemed  and  propagated, 
and  would  remind  that  among  the  tomentose  Riparias,  the 
Riparia  Scribner  seems  to  have  an  equal  value  to  the  above 
two  varieties,  and  is  even  superior  in  compact  soils. 

Riparia  Gloire  de  Montpellier  (syn.  Riparia  Portalis, 
Riparia  Michel,  Riparia  Saporta)  was  first  mentioned  by 
Louis  Vial  la.  It  is,  along  with  the  Grand  Glabre  and 
Scribner,  the  most  vigorous,  with  rather  large  trunk.  Canes 
spreading,  long,  internodes  long,  of  medium  thickness,  a 
little  bent  at  the  nodes,  light-hazel  colour,  smooth,  slightly 
shinning,  turning  to  bluish  bloom  near  the  nodes  when 
lignified,  young  shoots  light -purple  tint.  Leaves  (Fig.  52) 
large  or  very  large,  thick,  long,  the  lobes  indicated  by  a 


IIO  AMERICAN    VINES. 

great  development  of  the  limb,  which  is  terminated  by  a 
long  tooth — the  tooth  of  the  terminal  lobe  is  slightly  incurved 
underneath;  regular  goffered  structure  between  the  main 
ribs,  which  are  of  a  vinous-red  colour  mostly  at  their 
origin;  dark  green,  rather  shining  on  the  upper-face,  paler 
green,  light  pink  ribs  with  stiff  hair  on  the  under-face; 
petiolar  sinus  deep,  like  an  open  U;  two  series  of  acute 
teeth.  Petiole  strong,  vinous-red. 

Riparia  Grand  Glabre. — This  variety  was  selected  at  Mon- 
tagnac  by  G.  Arnaud,  and  is  identical  with  Riparia  No.  13 
of  Meissner's  collection.  Canes  long,  internodes  long, 
medium  thickness,  of  a  purple  tint  during  the  herbaceous 
state;  hazel-grey,  slightly  vinous  with  much  bloom,  and 
red  near  the  nodes  when  lignified.  Leaves  (Fig.  5,3)  medium 
or  above  medium,  cordiform,  lateral  superior  lobes  each  indi- 
cated by  longer  teeth,  margins  incurved  underneath,  lustrous 
dark  green  upper-face,  yellowish-green,  with  stiff  hair  on 
the  ribs  of  the  under-face;  teeth  acute,  slightly  deep; 
petiolar  sinus  widely  open,  V-shape. 

(c)  Adaptation  and  Culture. — The  V.  Riparia  is  highly 
resistant  to  phylloxera;  the  grafts  it  bears  are  very  vigorous, 
very  fructiferous,  and  mature  early.  All  the  forms  of  the 
species  take  root  very  easily  from  cuttings  or  grafted  cuttings: 
they  can  also  be  easily  grafted  when  they  have  been  in  the 
ground  a  number  of  years,  and  bear  most  grafts  of  European 
vines  fairly  well. 

The  V.  Riparia  is  also  very  resistant  to  cold,  and  can  be 
cultivated  in  all  the  viticultural  regions  of  Europe.  This 
grafting-stock,  which  came  after  the  Concord.  Taylor,  Clinton, 
at  the  begirming  of  the  reconstitution  with  American  vines, 
was  certainly  boomed  excessively;  it  was  a  mistake  to  believe 
that  on  account  of  its  vigorous,  resistant,  and  producing 
qualities  it  could  be  successfully  cultivated  in  all  soils  with- 
out exception.  It  was  necessary,  for  this  variety  especially, 
to  know  the  grounds  in  which  it  was  growing  in  America. 
The  Riparia  was  planted  indiscriminately  in  the  most  sili- 
ceous as  well  as  strongly  calcareous  soils.  Consequently, 
complete  failures  were  recorded,  which  resulted  in  a  disbelief 
of  the  value  of  American  vines  and  induced  a  reaction  which 
resulted  in  the  Riparia  being  discarded  for  some  time.  The 
properties  of  the  Riparia  are  now  well  known,  as  this  graft- 
ing-stock alone  has  served  to  reconstitute  nearly  1,136,400 
acres  (1895)  out  °f  a  total  of  1,730,000  acres  of  American 


1  CEPAGES.  Ill 

vines  planted  in  France  then;  the  Riparia  is  used,  with 
good  reason,  as  one  of  the  best  grafting- stocks. 

The  V.  Riparia  of  all  the  American  species  spreads  over 
the  largest  geograpaical  area;  it  extends  from  the  centre  of 
Canada  in  the  north,  which  is  one  of  the  coldest  climates,  to 
Texas  and  Louisiana  in  the  south  of  the  United  States,  and 
on  the  west  to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  It  is  specially  abun- 
dant in  the  Central  States  and  those  bordering  the  Atlantic. 

In  the  northern  limit  of  its  geographical  distribution,  the 
Riparia  withstands  a  cold  of  — 30°  C.,  and  in  the  south  resists 
the  highest  temperatures.  On  account  of  its  early  growth,  its 
first  buds  are  very  subject  to  spring  frosts,  but,  when  frost 
bitten,  large  numbers  grow  on  the  trunk  and  base  of  the 
spurs;  this  is  not  a  fault  when  it  is  grown  for  the  pro- 
duction of  cuttings,  and  has  no  importance  when  grafted,  for 
we  shall  see  when  we  study  grafting  that  early  budding  does 
not  force  the  graft  to  grow  earlier. 

The  Riparia  does  not  succeed  in  too  dry  surroundings,  espe- 
cially if  little  fertile;  it  has  a  poor  growth  in  such  soils,  and 
the  difference  in  size  between  the  stock  and  scion,  which 
occurs  with  all  varieties,  is  then  accentuated;  we  will  discuss 
this  further  in  the  chapter  on  grafting.  The  Riparia  is 
vigorous  in  the  wild  state  in  moist  soils  only,  and  it  is  especially 
on  the  sandy  and  fresh  banks  of  rivers  that  it  attains  its 
greatest  development  in  America.  This  applies  also  in 
France,  where  the  Riparia  grows  much  better  in  cool  than  in 
dry,  sandy  soils;  but  it  does  not  like  wampy  or  wet  ground. 

The  Riparia  grows  in  soils  of  very  different  kinds  in  the 
United  States,  belonging  to  the  primitive  formations  or  their 
derivatives,  and  to  a  less  extent  in  secondary  or  tertiary  for- 
mations. The  recent  alluvials,  the  rich  siliceous  or  red  clay 
siliceous  soils  (pebbly  or  not),  the  fresh  and  fertile  sands,  the 
soils  formed  of  hard  calcareous  debris,  but  fresh  and  rich, 
are  the  surroundings  in  which  it  acquires  a  fine  development. 
The  Riparis  imported  into  France  by  Meissner  were  selected 
on  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi  River  where  the  soils  are 
formed  by  clay -sandy  alluvials,  composed  of  fine  particles, 
dark-grey  colour,  and  great  fertility,  resting  on  hard  cal- 
careous 01  laminated  banks  of  black-blue  clay.  As  an 
example,  one  of  these  very  fertile  soils  contained  (physical 
analysis): — 

Clay  ..  ..  ..  65.020  per  cent. 

Sand  . .  .  .  .  .  27 . 500 

Limestone  7 . 273 


112  AMERICAN  VINES. 

In  Virginia,  whence  many  Riparias  were  imported,  the 
soils  are  clay-sandy,  rich,  of  a  red  colour,  mixed  with 
siliceous  pebbles.  In  the  north  of  New  York  State,  the 
Riparia  soils  were  formed  from  the  decomposition  of 
Devonian  schists,  and  constitute  a  clay-sandy  soil  with  few 
pebbles  and  very  rich;  in  Delaware  and  Maryland,  the 
Riparias  are  in  the  very  rich,  red,  grey,  or  grey -yellow 
humiferous  sands.  On  the  banks  of  the  Great  Lakes  they 
grow  in  mellow  soils  which  have  been  formed  by  the  decom- 
position of  hard  calcareous  rocks,  of  the  Devonian  period, 
which  are  very  fertile,  although  fairly  calcareous.  When, 
exceptionally,  the  calcareous  pebbles  are  numerous  and 
soft,  the  Riparias  are  not  found;  and  if,  by  chance,  a  few 
vines  are  found  in  these  soils  they  are  poor,  yellow,  and 
stunted.  The  Riparias  are  very  scarce,  and  affected  by 
chlorosis  in  their  wild x  state,  in  the  yellow  marls  and  lime- 
stones of  Kentucky  and  the  environs  of  Sandusky. 

It  is  in  the  soft  limestones  and  yellow  or  white  calcareous 
marls  of  diverse  formations  in  France  that  the  Riparias 
have  given  most  numerous  failures.  Sometimes  they  are 
found  green  and  pretty  vigorous  in  those  surroundings  when 
the  soil  is  specially  rich,  but  only  while  they  are  not  grafted; 
as  soon  as  they  are  grafted  they  get  chlorosis,  become 
stunted,  and  die  rapidly.  The  V.  Riparia  is  less  subject  to 
the  effect  of  limestone  than  the  V.  Rupestris  or  V.  ^Esti- 
valis;  but  in  soils  where  carbonate  of  lime  is  very  plentiful, 
even  if  the  soil  is  rich,  it  succumbs  to  chlorosis.  In  dry, 
unfertile,  but  non-calcareous  soils,  it  has  only  a  feeble 
development,  and  supports  poor  grafts,  showing,  as  already 
said,  a  great  difference  in  thickness  between  the  stock  and 
the  scion.  The  Riparia  is  best  suited  by  almost  non- 
calcareous  soils,  naturally  fertile,  or  enriched  by  plentiful 
manuring.  Under  these  conditions,  no  other  grafting-stock 
is  superior  to  it;  the  numerous  examples  of  resonstitution 
which  actually  exist  in  France  prove  this  in  an  indisputable 
manner. 

The  Riparia  must  therefore,  play  a  principal  r61e  as  an 
element  for  reconstitution  in  the  siliceous,  clay -siliceous, 
clay -limestone,  silico-limetones,  deep,  fresh,  and  fertile  soils. 
When  the  subsoil  is  calcareous  and  hard,  but  covered  with 
only  slightly  calcareous  soil  of  35  to  50  cm.  (14  to  16  inches) 
thick,  it  succeeds  very  well,  provided  the  soil  has  the  neces- 
sary amount  of  fertility,  and  if  in  trenching  care  be  taken  not 


'  CEPAGES.  113 

to  disturb  the  subsoil  or  mix  with  it  the  top  soil.  A  lesser 
thickness  of  non-calcareous  soil,  resting  on  a  calcareous 
subsoil,  is  sometimes  sufficient  in  moist  regions,  where  there 
is  no  drought,  or  a  drought  of  short  duration,  allowing  the 
roots  to  live  on  the  surface  in  the  non-calcareous  soil.  It  is 
the  best  grafting-stock  to  choose  for  the  red,  pebbly,  or 
slightly  calcareous  soils,  when  the  soil  is  at  least  50  cm. 
(16  inches)  in  depth,  and  rich,  mellow,  and  sound.  These 
various  kinds  of  soils  are  frequently  met  in  French  viticul- 
tural  regions.  Spraying  the  vines  with  sulphate  of  iron 
(method  of  Rassiguier)  may  serve  to  increase  the  area  for 
the  culture  of  V.  Riparia  inf fairly  calcareous  soils. 

V.      RUBRA. 

The  V.  Rubra  is  a  very  rare   species    in   America;    it    is 
limited  to  three  or  four  points  on  the  banks  of  the  Missis- 
sippi and  Merrimac  Rivers,  in  the  sandy, 
very  rich,  fresh,  and  moist  allu vials,  where 
it  only  acquires  a  small  development.      It 
exists  in  a  few  rare  collections,  and  remains 
there.     The  V.  Rubra  has,  however,  a  very       Fig.  55-— Seed  of 
great  resistance  to  phylloxera,  according  to 
Millardet,  but  its  constant  feeble  vigour  renders  it  valueless 
for  reconstitution ;    it   only  has   a   certain   value   as  far  as 
hvbridization  is  concerned. 


114  AMERICAN  VINES. 


IL— ASIATIC     SPECIES. 

The  principal  species  of  Asiatic  vines  are : — 

V.  COIGNETI^:,  Pulliat;  V.  THUNBERGI,  Siebold  et  Zucc.  ^ 
V.  LANATA,  Roxburg;  V.  PEDICELLATA,  Lawson;  V. 
ROMANETI,  Romanet  du  Caillaud;  V.  DAVIDI  or  SPINO- 
VITIS  DAVIDI,  Romanet  du  Caillaud;  V.  AMURENSIS,  Ru- 
precht ;  V.  PAGNUCCII,  Romanet  du  Caillaud. 

All  these  species  have,  from  the  point  of  view  of  their 
adaptation  and  general  characters,  a  great  analogy  with 
V.  Labrusca.  We  know  that  the  Behring  Strait,  separating 
Asia  from  America,  is  bordered  in  the  two  continents  by 
soils  belonging  to  the  same  geological  formation  (Tertiary) ;. 
the  diffusion  of  the  same  species  in  the  two  continents  may 
have  therefore  taken  place  at  a  past  epoch,  and  the  actual 
types  may  originate  from  a  common  origin. 

The  Asiatic  species  are  only  slightly  resistant  to  phyl- 
loxera; the  following  are  the  figures  expressing  the  resis- 
tance of  the  three  best  known  species: — 

V.    Coignetise  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .          3 

V.    Amurensis  .  .  .  .  ...  .  .          2 

V.    Thunbergi  .  .  .  .  .  .          1 

These  species  have  grown  well  in  France,  when  not  de- 
stroyed by  phylloxera,  in  rich,  mellow,  deep,  fresh  soils. 
They  seem  to  require  a  moist  atmosphere ;  in  dry  years  their 
development  appears  to  be  checked,  and  their  leaves  fall 
early.  They  resist  chlorosis  almost  as  well  as  V.  Labrusca r 
especially  V.  Thunbergi,  V.  Coignetiae,  and  V.  Amurensis, 
which  is  one  of  the  most  slender,  having  some  of  the 
characters  of  V.  Vinifera,  but  greater  resistance  in  lime- 
stone soils.  These  vines  are  evidently  of  no  value  whatever, 
even  in  very  cold  and  humid  regions,  for  which  the  V.  Coig- 
netiae has  been  extolled. 

We  fear  that  these  conclusions  cannot  be  applied  to  the 
vines  of  Caplat  resulting  from  Coignetise  seedlings,  and 
which  from  the  preliminary  trials  in  propagation  would 
have  given  encouraging  results  in  the  extreme  north 
of  France.  The  origin  of  these  vines  allows  us,  how- 
ever, to  assert  &  priori  their  non-resistance  to  phyl- 
loxera. 


CEPAGES.  115 


III.— VITIS  VINIFERA. 

It  is  useful,  for  what  we  have  to  say  about  the  hybrids 
between  V.  Vinifera  and  American  vines,  to  know  what  are 
the  properties  of  adaptation  and  the  resistance  of  this 
species,  which  has  given  all  the  European  ce'pages  actually 
cultivated. 

The  botanical  characters  of  the  V.  Vinifera  and  the 
innumerable  forms  derived  from  it  all  reside  in  the 
seed.  The  characters  of  the  trunk,  cane,  leaf,  berry,  are 
variable,  and  only  offer  slight  distinctions.  The  seed 
(Fig.  56)  varies  in  size,  but  has  a  constant  characteristic, 
which  is  being  elongated,  with  a  well 
and  clearly  denned  beak,  relatively  very 
long;  the  chalaze  is  depressed,  slightly 
apparent,  and  always  on  the  upper  portion 
of  the  seed ;  these  characters  of  prolonged 
beak  and  position  of  the  chalaze  are  never  Fig.  56— Seed  of 
found  in  other  species. 

Let  us  note  also,  as  a  contrast,  the  easy  propagation  from 
cuttings  of  all  the  cepages  derived  from  V.  Vinifera,  the 
clean  taste  of  their  fruit,  which  is  juicy,  not  pulpy  and  not 
foxy;  sometimes  they  have  a  peculiar  taste,  as  in  Muscat, 
Cinsaut,  Cabernet-Sauvignon.  Finally,  a  very  fixed  and 
important  character  from  the  point  of  view  of  adaptation  is 
that  of  the  roots,  which  are  large,  tender,  and  fleshy.  This 
characteristic  of  the  roots  being  large  explains  why  all  the 
cepages  derived  from  V.  Vinifera  generally  giow  well  in 
very  compact  soils. 

The  V.  Vinifera  succeeds,  however,  almost  equally  well 
from  a  vegetative  point  of  view,  in  soils  of  every  class,  from 
the  most  siliceous  to  the  most  calcareous.  But  in  white, 
soft,  chalky  soils  the  ce'pages  derived  from  this  species 
become  partially  chlorosed,  especially  if  the  spring  is  wet. 
We  have  given  some  examples  of  this  in  the  first  part  of 
this  work.  We  have  also  shown  that  the  chlorosis  is  only 
transitory,  and  of  no  importance.  If  we  compare,  from  the 
point  of  view  of  their  sensitiveness  to  chlorosis,  the  V. 
Vinifera  and  other  species,  especially  those  of  America,  we 
are  forced  to  the  conclusion  that  the  V.  Vinifera  are  the 
most  resistant;  the  V.  Berlandieri  alone  has  almost  the 
same  resistance  to  chlorosis  as  V.  Vinifera. 


Il6  AMERICAN  VINES. 

The  resistance  to  phylloxera  of  all  the  forms  of  V. 
Vinifera,  without  exception,  is  nil.  Certain  cepages,  owing 
to  their  inherent  great  vigour,  last  longer,  such  as,  for 
instance,  the  Colombeau,  Etraire  de  1'Adhui,  Psalmodi,  etc., 
but  they  all  finish  by  succumbing  to  the  attacks  of  the 
insects.  This  non-resistance  to  phylloxera,  as  well  as  resist- 
ance to  chlorosis,  is  transmitted  to  the  hybrids  resulting 
from  V.  Vinifera,  and  their  selection,  from  this  point  of  view, 
must  be  made  with  the  greatest  care. 


CEP  AGES.  117 

IV.— HYBRIDS. 

A. HYBRIDIZATION. 

(a)  Historical. — The  .vine  hybrids,  or  product  of  the 
crossing  of  two  different  species,  are  extremely  numerous 
and  varied  in  the  wild  state,  as  will  be  evidenced  in  what 
follows. 

The  possibility  of  crossing  two  species,  giving  individuals 
of  an  infinite  fecundity,  was  denied  for  a  long  time,  and 
brought  to  light  more  especially  by  the  work  of  Darwin. 
Millardet  was  the  first  to  attract  attention  to  the  complexity 
and  origin  of  certain  forms  of  American  vines,  and  to  deter- 
mine their  hybrid  nature ;  he  insisted  on  this  fact,  that  the 
hybrids  between  species  were  always  fertile,  and  that  the 
fertility  was  maintained  almost  indefinitely,  even  in  most 
complex  combinations.  Not  only  hybrids  of  two  species, 
but  hybrids  of  three,  four,  or  five  species  are  fertile,  and 
give  seeds  capable  of  originating  fertile  individuals  again, 
a  fertility  which  is  maintained  indefinitely. 

The  vine  is  certainly  one  of  the  plants  in  which  these 
phenomena  are  most  frequent  in  the  wild  state,  and  the 
most  easy  to  produce  artificially.  The  natural  hybrids  are 
so  varied  in  America  that  one  might  classify  between 
different  species,  series  of  forms  with  intermediate  characters, 
which  renders  the  specific  elimination  very  difficult.  It  is 
very  probable  that  the  cepages  derived  from  the  V.  Vinifera, 
fixed  and  selected  by  a  long  series  of  generations,  are 
partly  the  result  of  different  crossings.  But,  in  a  botanical 
sense,  the  crossing  between  two  individuals  of  the  same 
species  yield  metis  and  not  hybrids.  As  very  ably  proved 
by  Millardet,  in  a  work  on  the  hybridization  of  vines,*  there 
is  no  difference  in  the  case  of  vines  between  a  metis  and  a 
hybrid.  When  crossing  takes  place  between  two  individuals 
of  the  same  species,  or  two  individuals  of  different  species, 
the  hybrids  or  metis  resulting  have  an  equal  fecundity. 

The  creation  of  new  varieties  of  vines  by  sowing  or  by 
hybridization  has  been  tried  for  a  very  long  time.  Vibert, 
Robert  Moreau,  Courtiller,  .  Beeson,  etc.,  in  France,  have 
made  numerous  seedlings  with  the  object  of  improving 
table  grapes.  The  sowing  of  vines  has  been  practised  for 

*A.  Millardet,  Essais  sur  1'hybridization  de  la  vigne.    Revue  des  Pyrenees^  1891. 


Il8  AMERICAN    VINES 

a  very  long  time  in  America.  The  vineyardists  of  the  United 
States  tried  to  produce  new  forms  from  seedlings,  in  the 
hope  that  they  would  be  better  adapted  to  climatic  con- 
ditions, which  they  thought  was  the  only  cause  of  failure 
in  vine  culture.  It  was  also  with  the  same  object  that  they 
tried  later  on  to  create  new  varieties  by  hybridization. 
Roger,  Arnold,  Underbill,  Dr.  Wylie,  Allen,  Rickett,  Adlum, 
Bull,  Bush  and  Meissner,  Hermann  Jaeger,  T.  V.  Munson, 
etc.,  obtained  by  these  means  numerous  forms,  some  of 
which  were  introduced  and  multiplied  in  France ;  these  will 
be  studied  later  on. 

In  France,  the  first  trials  of  hybridization  or  metization 
were  carried  out  by  Louis  and  Henri  Bouschet ;  they  com- 
menced their  researches  in  1828,  and  have  given  to  the  vine- 
growers  in  southern  districts  cepages  of  great  value  (Petit- 
Bouschet,  Alicante-Bouschet,  Grand  noir  de  la  Calmette,  etc). 
Louis  and  Henri  Bouschet  resorted  to  crossing,  for  the  first 
time,  with  a  defined  object.  They  desired  to  infuse,  by 
crossing,  the  intense  colouration  of  the  fruit  of  the  Tinto  to 
the  heavy  bearers  of  the  south  of  France,  and  they  succeeded 
in  realizing  the  combinations  aimed  at. 

But  hybridization  has  assumed  great  importance  on  account 
•of  the  phylloxera  crisis,  and  the  reconstruction  with  resistant 
vines  forced  on  vine-growers.  This  importance  has  been  and 
actually  is  the  direct  consequences  of  the  results  and  failures 
obtained  in  the  cultivation  of  American  vines. 

The  first  attempts  at  hybridization  were  made  with  the 
object  of  creating,  by  crossing  American  vines  with  varieties 
of  V.  Vinifera,  fructiferous  and  resistant  forms.  On  account 
of  the  inherent  qualities  of  affinity  to  grafting  which  those 
hybrids  were  supposed  to  have,  through  their  relation  with 
V.  Vinifera,  it  was  desired  to  utilize  the  most  .vigorous  and 
resistant  of  them  as  graft-bearers. 

When  the  properties  of  adaptation  of  the  American  species 
and  varieties  were  better  known,  the  crossing  was  so 
directed  as  to  unite  the  V.  Vinifera  to  American  vines 

ving  special  qualities  for  given  soils,  and,  therefore,  to  create 
resistant  graft-bearers,  with  perfect  affinity  to  grafting  and 
pre-determined  adaptation  to  certain  soils. 

On  account  of  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  resistance  to 
phylloxera  by  the  combinations  of  European  and  American 
vines,  the  new  lines  followed,  with  reason,  the  creation  of 
hybrids  (Americo- American)  between  resistant  vines  en- 


CEPAGES.  1 10 

f 

dowed  naturally  with  properties  of  affinity  and  varied 
adaptation  which  were  tried  to  be  amalgamated  by  hybridi- 
zation. 

Finally,  we  may  succeed  in  creating  direct  producers  of  real 
fructiferous  merit,  adapted  to  diverse  soils,  resisting  phyl- 
loxera and  various  cryptogamic  diseases.  But  these  possible 
successes  seem  very  elusive.  However,  it  is  true  that  hybridi- 
zation has  entered  a  new  path,  which  in  the  distant  future 
may  be  full  of  results ;  some  results  may  even  be  seen 
now. 

An  important  fact,  which  would  give  hybrids  of  V.  Vini- 
fera  a  great  superiority  as  graft-bearers,  if  their  resistance 
to  phylloxera  was  certain,  is  that  resulting  from  the  great 
affinity  to  grafting  which  those  hybrids  possess  with  regard 
to  European  vines.  We  have  seen,  in  the  first  part  of  this 
work,  the  influence  of  grafting  on  the  properties  of  resistance 
and  adaptation  of  grafting-stocks.  The  hybrids  of  V.  Vini- 
fera  possess  these  qualities  of  affinity  in  a  much  higher 
degree  than  pure  American  vines,  and  the  affinity  of  the 
hybrids  will  be  so  much  the  greater  as  the  American  parents 
possess  it  to  a  higher  degree  themselves. 

Artificial  fecundation,  practised  with  the  object  of  obtain- 
ing direct  producers  and  resistant  graft-bearers  of  more 
extended  adaptation,  and  of  greater  affinity  to  grafting,  has 
been  performed  by  several  French  viticulturists ;  its  execution 
is  easy,  and  may  be  performed  by  any  one. 

We  will  rapidly  describe  the  principles  and  technicalities, 
having  recourse  to  personal  researches  conducted  by  us  in 
collaboration  with  G.  Foe'x,  and  to  those  of  Millardet,  who 
studied  in  detail  and  with  undeniable  authoritativeness,  this 
question  in  all  its  phases.  Previous  to  1880,  when  he 
started,  in  conjunction  with  de  Grasset,  hybridizations  with 
different  objects,  Millardet  had  attracted  public  attention  to 
the  importance  of  the  results  which  might  be  obtained  in 
viticulture  by  the  adoption  of  this  process.  Ganzin 
seriously  studied  artificial  hybridization  of  vines  at  about  the 
same  date,  and  has  since  pursued  it  with  success ;  he  pub- 
lished the  first  work  on  this  subject  in  1881.*  We  may 
state  here  that  hybridization  between  American  and  Euro- 
pean vines  had  been  made  at  the  School  of  Agriculture, 
Montpellier,  by  G.  Foe'x.  in  1876,  and  that  it  was  continued 


*  Ganzin,    De  I'Hybridation     artificielle   et    des   services  qu'on   peut   en   attendre 
pour  1  avemer  de  la  viticulture,  Revue  scientifique,    1881. 


120 


AMERICAN    VINES. 


in  conjunction  with  the  writers  in  the  new  direction  indicated 
by  the  observation  of  facts. 

Couderc  has  pursued  the  practical  study  of  hybridization 
since  1880.  We  will  mention  amongst  the  hybridizators 
best  known  in  viticulture — Davin,  Castel,  Malegue,  Siebell, 
Terras,  etc. 

(b)  Fecundation  of  the  Vine. — The  phenomena  of  fecunda- 
tion of  the  vine,  upon  which  hybridization  is  based,  were 
studied  in  detail  in  1882,  and  more  recently  (1891)  by 
Millardet.  E.  Rathay  completed,  in  1888,  the  first  work  of 
Millardet  on  the  morphological  organization  of  the  flowers 
of  diverse  cepages.  It  has  been  asserted  for  a  long  time 
that  the  disposition  of  the  flowers  of  vines  prevented  the 
phenomena  of  crossed  fecundation.  The  five  petals  at  the 
period  of  florescence,  which  begins  at  15°  C.  and  is  in  full 
between  15°  and  20°  C.  (Millardet),  only  become  detached  at 
their  base  of  insertion  t>n  the  receptacle,  and  always  remain 
united  at  the  apex,  forming  a  cap  (operculum)  (Fig.  57). 

It  was  admitted  for  a  long  time  that 
at  the  moment  the  corolla  became  detached 
the  operculum  was  lowered  on  the  pistil, 
forcing  the  stamens  on  to  it;  the  de- 
hiscence  of  the  anthers  then  occurred, 
and  the  pollen  became  deposited  on  the 
stigma.  The  action  of  pollen  foreign  to 
Fig.  57-— Normal  the  flower  was  therefore  prevented.  With 

Vine  Flower.  ,  .  .  r      i  i 

this  interpretation  ot  the  phenomenon  pre- 
ceding fecundation,  it  would  be  difficult  to  account  for  the 
existence  of  spontaneous  hybrids. 

The  phenomena  take  place  in  a  different  manner  in  the 
majority  of  cases,  as  observed  by  Millardet  (Fig.  58).  The 


r  ?  a         rt  b         w  r       ry  a  ?«%  e 

Fig.  58. — Different  stages  in  the  opening  of  a  Chasselas  Flower  (after  Millardet). ' 


dehiscence  of  the  corolla  is  the  result  of  the  erection  of  the 
stamens,  thus  lifting  the  operculum.  At  a  convenient 
temperature  the  corolla  becomes  separated,  and  finally  falls 


CEPAGES.  121 

away.  The  stamens  which  are  erected  against  the  pistil,  as 
soon  as  the  corolla  has  dropped,  slowly  recede  from  the  pistil 
and  become  obliquely  disposed  to  it ;  five  or  ten  minutes  after 
"  the  anthers  oscillate  on  their  point  of  attachment  so  as  to 
turn  outwards  the  face  which  was  previously  in  contact  with 
the  stigma,  then  the  face  of  the  anther  bursts,  with  the 
result  that  the  pollen  becomes  liberated."  The  pollen  only 
falls  out  after  the  rotation  of  the  anther  has  taken  place. 
The  auto-fecundation  of  the  flower  is  therefore  prevented  by 
the  physiological  disposition  of  the  floral  organs,  and  cross- 
fecundation  therefore  generally  happens.  Millardet  has 
shown,  however,  some  rare  cases  of  special  flowers,  which  he 
terms  operculated  (Malbeck,  for  instance),  in  which  the 
corolla  does  not  normally  or  accidentally  fall  away  (non- 
setting,  owing  to  atmospheric  conditions),  and  in  which  auto- 
fecundation  does  not  take  place.  Rathay  and  the  writers 
have  often  observed  auto-fecundation. 

The  pollen  is  carried,  by  wind  or  by  insects,  from  one 
flower  to  another  on  the  same  vine,  or  from  one  vine  to 
another  and  is  deposited  on  the  stigma,  wetted  with  a  special 
liquid,  in  which  it  emits  pollen  tubes,  which,  travelling  through 
the  style,  reach  and  fecundate  the  ovules. 

According  to  Millardet  the  phenomena  are  similar  for 
cultivated  or  wild  vines.  In  the  latter  the  recession  of  the 
stamens  and  the  rotating  movement  of  the  anthers  on  the 
filaments  are  still  more  pronounced.  This  process  of  flores- 
cence is  constant  with  all  hermaphrodite  flowers  with  long 
stamens. 

The  studies  of  Millardet  and  E.  Rathay*  have  definitely 
determined  these  facts,  previously  observed  by  J.  E.  Plan- 
chon,  on  the  difference  of  constitution  of  flowers.  Many 
species  in  a  wild  state  have  male  and  hermaphrodite  flowers. 
Many  forms  of  Rupestris  and 
Berlandieri,  for  instance,  have 
exclusively  male  flowers  (Fig. 
59)  ;  the  pistil  is  abortive  and 
reduced  to  a  small  nipple,  around 
which  are  erected  long  filaments 
(much  longer  than  those  of  her- 
maphrodite flowers  With  long  Fig'  S9--Male  Flowers. 

stamens).     The   stamens   remain   erect   after  the  florescence, 

*  E.  Rathay,  Die  Geschlechtsverh&ltniss  der  Rebent  Wein,  1888. 


122 


AMERICAN    VINES. 


Fig.  60. — Flower  with 
long  stamens. 


and  the  anthers  open  outwards,  offering  a  great  and 
direct  action  to  the  wind,  which  carries  away  the  pollen 
dust. 

In  cultivated  or  wild  vines  hermaphrodite  flowers  are 
divided  into  classes — those  with  long  stamens  (longer 
than  the  pistil)  (Fig.  60),  of  the  florescence  and  fecundation 
of  which  we  have  just  given  an  idea, 
and  others,  less  numerous,  with  short 
stamens.  In  the  latter  the  stamens, 
shorter  than  the  pistil,  have  their 
anthers  in  contact  with  the  corona  of 
the  stigma.  When  florescence  takes 
place  the  filament  of  these  short- 
stamened  flowers  curves  outwards, 
bringing  the  anthers  in  contact  with  the  base  of  the  pistil 
(Fig.  61).  According  to  E.  Rathay  the  pollen  of  short- 
stamened  flowers  differs  mor- 
phologically from  that  of 
flowers  having  long  stamens, 
and  has  no  power  of  germina- 
tion. Rathay  concludes  that 
they  cannot  be  utilized  for 
hybridization.  Millardet  rea- 
sons on  results  obtained  with 
the  pollen  of  male  flowers, 
and  does  not  consider  this 
fact  is  constant. 

According  to  Rathay  the  short-stamened  flowers  of 
cultivated  vines  are  fecundated  by  the  pollen  of  other 
vines  with  long-stamened  flowers.  If  this  were  not  so,  non- 
setting  would  take  place.  This  was  demonstrated  very 
practically  by  the  experiments  of  A.  Jurie.*  Short-stamened 
flowers  are  the  rule  in  wild  species  with  hermaphrodite 
flowers.  We  will  deduct  conclusions'  later  on  from  these 
observations. 

(c)  Technique  of  Hybridisation. — When  we  desire  to  cross 
two  cepages,  the  flowering  period  of  florescence  of  which  is 
simultaneous,  the  operation  is  easy.  But  this  case  is  the 
exception,  especially  in  the  hybridization  between  European 
and  American  vines.  Certain  American  vines,  such  as  V. 


Fig.  61. — Flowers  with  short  stamens. 


Reime  de  Viticulture,  1895. 


CEPAGES.  123. 

Riparia,  are  in  bloom  a  fortnight  *  or  three  weeks  before  the 
different  V.  Vinifera;  others,  such  as  V  Berlandieri,  ten  days 
to  a  fortnight  after. 

When  the  vine  which  is  to  furnish  the  male  element  flowers 
before  the  vine  which  is  to  be  fecundated,  we  generally  find 
flowers,  resulting  from  late  florescence  (second  crop),  grown 
on  secondary  ramifications,  which  may  furnish  the  pollen 
required  for  fecundating  purposes.  If  the  time  between  the 
periods  of  florescence  were  too  great,  it  would  be  necessary  to- 
retard  the  flowering  of  the  vine  that  was  to  furnish  the  male 
element.  The  best  method,  in  this  case,  is  to  pinch  back  the 
shoots  frequently ;  if  this  is  done  early  enough  new  flowers 
are  developed  on  the  secondary  shoots.  We  may  also  hasten 
the  period  of  florescence  of  the  female  plant,  or  in  other 
cases  of  the  male  plant  (Berlandieri,  Cinerea,  etc.).  For 
this  purpose  we  may  bring  down  the  flowering  shoots  as  close 


*The  following  are  the  extremes  of  flowering  period  observed  for  several  cepages 
at  the  School  of  Agriculture,  Montpellier- — 

V.  Rotundifolia 9th  July  to  14th  July 

V.  Labrusca  (Concord)       .  .          .  .  17th  May  to  1st  June 

(Isabella)       ..          ..  15th  May  to  25th  May 

V.  Candicans  13th  May  to  25th  May 

V.  Lincecumii  (Neosho)      .  .  .  .  1st  June  to  llth  June 

V.  Berlandieri  18th  June  to  26th  June 

V.  Cordifolia  29th  May  to  9th  June 

V  Cinerea 19th  June  to  25th  June 

V.  Rupestris  15th  May  to  21st  May 

V.  Riparia 24th  April  to  19th  May 

Solonis  14th  May  to  23rd  May 

Taylor  llth  May  to  22nd  May 

Clinton  llth  May  to  22nd  May 

Champin 25th  April  to  21st  May 

Huntingdon  10th  May  to  21st  May 

Vialla  5th  May  to  20th  May 

Cornucopia 8th  May  to  22nd  May 

Elvira  llth  May  to  26th  May 

Black  Pearl 14th  May  to  22nd  May 

Triumph 4th  June  to  15th  June 

York-Madiera  24th  May  to  2nd  June 

Othello          12th  May  to  28th  May 

Noah  24th  May  to  28th  May 

Canada          20th  May  to  22nd  May 

Autuchon 15th  May  to  25th  May 

Herbemont  .  3rd  May  to  12th  June 

Cynthiana     ..  ..       '    ...  ..  31st  May  to  10th  June 

Jacquez         30th  May  to  10th  June 

V.  Vinifera  (Aramon)          .  .  .  .  24th  May  to  7th  June 

(Chasselas)        . .          .,.          20th  May  to  3rd  June 


124  AMERICAN    VINES. 

as  possible  to  the  ground,  or  place  them  under  glass  frames 
in  the  vineyard  itself. 

The  simultaneousness  of  the  florescence  being  assured,  the 
male  and  female  plants  being  decided  upon,  the  bunch  to  be 
fecundated  is  chosen.  It  should  be  vigorous  and  normally 
developed,  and  when  a  few  flowers  begin  to  open,  which  are 
removed,  is  the  best  moment  to  proceed  with  the  operation. 
We  preserve,  towards  the  centre  of  the  bunch,  30  to  50  well 
developed  flowers.  With  a  small  dissecting  forceps,  the  cap 
of  the  corolla  is  seized,  while  exerting  a  slight  pressure  and 
pulling  upwards  at  the  same  time.  The  petals  become 
detached  from  their  base,  and,  with  a  little  skill,  they  are 
removed,  together  with  all  the  stamens.  If  the  petals  were 
not  removed  by  the  first  operation,  they  should  be  seized  at 
their  point  of  insertion,  and  successively  disarticulated. 
When  two  or  three  petals  are  disjointed,  the  whole  of  the 
corolla  is  easily  detached.  We  remove  the  stamens  which 
did  not  become  detached,  and  then  ascertain,  with  a 
magnifying  glass,  that  there  is  no  pollen  on  the  stigma.  The 
operation  being  made  on  all  the  flowers,  we  remove  that  part 
of  the  bunch  not  used. 

The  bunches  from  the  vine  which  is  to  act  as  male  have 
been  previously  gathered  in  full  bloom.  They  are  shaken 
-over  the  stigmas  of  the  bunch  to  be  fecundated,  the  stamens 
not  naturally  dehiscent  are  rendered  so  by  exposure  for  a  few 
moments  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  (Millardet),  we  then 
ascertained,  with  a  magnifying  glass,  if  the  stigmas  are  im- 
pregnated. The  pollen,  as  shown  by  Millardet,  may  be 
gathered  and  dried  in  the  open  air  for  a  few  days  previously, 
and  preserves  its  fecundating  power  for  ten  days  at  least. 
This  pollen  dust  may  be  spread  over  the  stigmas  of  the  pre- 
pared bunch. 

The  impregnated  flowers  may  remain  exposed  to  the  open 
air,  but  it  is  better  to  take  additional  precautions.  The  bunch 
is  isolated  in  a  bag  of  gummed  gauze,  kept  distended  with  a 
fine  wire  spirally  arranged  inside,  so  as  to  prevent  foreign 
pollen  from  entering  and  affecting  the  results  sought;  for 
other  pollen,  with  a  greater  sexual  affinity,  might  fall  on  the 
stigmas  and  develop  more  rapidly.  It  is  better  to  place  in 
the  gauze  bag  a  fragment  of  the  male  flower,  which  would 
subsequently  furnish  pollen,  if  the  fecundation  had  not  taken 
place  as  desired. 

A  relatively  short  time  is  necessary  for  the  pollen  cell  to 
-germinate  on  the  stigma,  and  for  the  pollen  tube  to  travel 


CEPAGES.  125 

through  the  short  stylary  channel  of  the  pistil.  Generally, 
as  soon  as  the  pollen  tube  has  penetrated  the  ovule,  the 
stigma  and  style  die  off.  The  gauze  bag  may,  therefore,  be 
removed  soon  after;  but,  as  an  additional  precaution,  it  is 
allowed  to  remain  on  for  a  week.  The  fecundated  branch  is 
then  isolated  in  a  larger  gauze  bag  until  maturity,  to  avoid 
the  destruction  of  the  berries  by  birds,  or  accidents,  etc. 

It  is  not  generally  possible  to  recognise,  from  the  berries 
themselves,  if  fecundation  has  taken  place.  As  shown  by 
Millardet,  and  often  observed  by  the  writers,  the  action  of 
crossing  on  the  fecundated  flowers  of  different  species  is  not 
apparent  on  the  berries  resulting  from  the  fecundation.  But 
this  action  takes  place  in  the  case  of  the  crossing  of  two 
varieties  of  the  same  species  (Metization), and  was  first  pointed 
out  by  Henri  Bouschet,  who  noticed  that  berries  of  Aramon 
and  Chasselas,  previously  fecundated  with  red  juice  cepages 
( Petit-Bouschet,  Tinto),  had  red  juices  after  fecundation, 
while  the  berries  of  the  same  grape,  not  fecundated,  still  had 
white  juice.  The  writers  have  themselves  verified  this  fact 
with  Rosaki  and  Chasselas  fecundated  with  Alicante- 
Bouschet ;  the  fecundated  berries  of  Rosaki  and  Chasselas, 
which  are  naturally  white,  had  the  juice  in  the  skin  reddish 
or  red.  These  facts  have  not  been  observed  in  the  crossing 
of  two  species  (hybridization). 

(d)  Sowing  and  Selection. — The  grapes  are  gathered  when 
very  ripe  and  left  to  dry,  before  the  seeds  are  separated 
from  the  pulp.  The  following  spring  they  are  prepared 
by  placing  them  in  water  to  separate  and  select  the  seed; 
bad  seeds  float,  good  seeds  sink  to  the  bottom.  They  are 
removed,  and  left  for  24  to  48  hours  soaked  in  water,  and 
are  then  stratified  for  twenty  days  in  slightly  damp  sand. 

It  is  better  to  sow  the  seeds  in  large  flower-pots,  filled 
with  rich  mellow  soil,  or  with  well  decomposed  mould. 
The  seeds  are  thus  easier  attended  to  than  when  in  a  nur- 
sery, where  other  seeds  might  accidentally  fall  in  the  beds, 
and  cause  confusion.  When  numerous  hybridization  sow- 
ings are  made,  great  care  must  be  exercised  in  labelling, 
and  the  seeds  of  a  given  species  should  be  isolated  in  one  or 
several  pots.  The  soil  should  be  kept  constantly  moist,  to 
assist  the  germination  of  the  seeds,  which  are  buried  from 
1 1/2  to  2  inches  at  most ;  the  surface  is  covered  with  a  mulch- 
ing of  partly  decomposed  stable  manure.  Germination  gen- 
erally takes  place  one  month  after  sowing.  If  we  can 
afford  glass  panes  or  glass  houses  the  sowing  should  take 


126  AMERICAN    VINES. 

place  in  February;  if  not,  it  should  be  done  at  the  end 
of  March  or  April.  When  the  young  plants  are  2  or 
2.Y-2  inches  high  they  are  hoed,  to  destroy  weeds.  The  only  care 
subsequently  consists  in  maintaining  the  surface  ot  the  soil 
loose,  and  in  giving  during  summer  frequent  but  not  abun- 
dant waterings.  The  young  seedlings  should  be  carefully 
protected  from  cryptogamic  diseases  by  means  of  Bordeaux 
mixture  and  sulphur,  as  they  are  very  sensitive  when 
young. 

The  seedlings  may  acquire  a  relatively  large  development 
during  the  first  year;  they  should  be  transplanted  the  fol- 
lowing year,  and  planted  at  normal  distances  of  3  feet 
or,  at  least  2ft.  6in.  apart.  t  We  then  begin  to  observe  and 
select. 

Selection,  in  view  of  obtaining  graft-bearers,  should  be 
made  with  the  objects  of  resistance  to  phylloxera,  vigour, 
adaptation,  affinity  to  ^grafting,  faculty  of  rooting  from 
cuttings;  and  for  direct-producers  selections  should  bear  on 
resistance  to  phylloxera,  adaptation,  fructification,  produc- 
tivity, taste,  quality  of  fruit,  precocity,  and  resistance  to 
cryptogamic  diseases. 

Rooting  of  cuttings,  affinity  to  grafting,  vigour,  resistance 
to  cryptogamic  diseases  may  be  judged  quickly  and  easily. 
Adaptation,  as  shown  in  the  first  part  of  this  work,  must 
be  judged  in  the  case  of  graft-bearers  after  they  have  been 
grafted,  and  this  cannot  be  determined  before  the  graft  is 
three  or  four  years  old.  The  determination  of  the  produc- 
tivity takes  longer,  many  seedlings  only  begin  to  bear  fruit 
after  3,  4,  5,  or  6  years ;  but  we  may  proceed  more  rapidly 
by  grafting  the  shoots  of  young  seedlings  on  vigorous  stock, 
the  grafting  hastening  the  fructification.  One  may  also, 
by  selecting  with  care  the  most  fructiferous  shoots  of  hy- 
brids with  well  constituted  grapes,  increase  the  produc- 
tivity. It  is  also  generally  known  that  grafting  on  old 
stock  is  the  most  practical  means  of  rapidly  multiplying 
varieties  which  offer  the  sought  qualities. 

But,  in  any  case,  one  of  the  most  important  studies  is 
that  of  the  relative  resistance  of  hybrids  to  phylloxera, 
the  main  quality  of  any  newly-created  vine.  Seven  or  eight 
years  of  close  and  attentive  observation  are  required  to 
judge  perfectly  the  value  of  resistance  of  a  cepage.  Several 
methods  have  been  proposed  in  order  to  arrive  at  this  result 
rapidly.  The  most  reliable  method  consists  in  planting 
the  seedlings  in  soil  naturally  phylloxerated,  or  phylloxe- 


CEPAGES. 


127 


Fig.  62. — Upper  face  of  a  vine  leaf,  showing  the  opening     Fig.  63. — Side    view,    showing 
of  phylloxera  galls.  phylloxera  galls. 

rated  artificially,  by  placing  in  the  ground  every  year  roots 
or  leaves  (with  galls*)  covered  with  insects  (Figs.  62  and  63). 
It  is  also  necessary  to  plant  at  the  same  time  rootlings 
of  Rupestris,  Riparia,  Vialla,  Solonis,  Jacquez,  York,  etc., 
the  resistance  of  which  is  known.  This  study  must  be 
carried  out  both  in  the  open  field  and  in  artificial  soils  in 
pots.  A  comparative  examination  of  the  roots  of  the  new 
cepages  and  those  of  the  check  known  varieties  enables  an 
opinion  to  be  formed  on  their  resistance  to  phylloxera  after 
a  very  short  period.  Only,  before  drawing  definite  conclu- 
sions, we  must  remember  that  many  non-resistant  vines  have 
less  nodosities  on  their  hair  roots  than  resistant  vines. 
Every  year  the  nodosities  and  tuberosities  (Figs.  64,  65,  66, 
67,  68)  of  the  roots  of  the  young  seedlings  must  be  examined, 
to  ascertain  if  they  offer  a  sufficient  guarantee  of  resistance. 
It  is  better,  although  not  indispensable,  to  plant  them  in 
relatively  dry  soil,  so  that  the  action  of  the  soil  in  no  way 
interferes  with  that  of  the  phylloxera.  If,  during  several 
years,  we  notice  that  the  roots  have  no  tuberosities,  but  only 
nodosities,  in  presence  of  phylloxera,  the  resistance  is  almost 
certainly  assured.  It  is  certainly  better  to  notice  a  few 
nodosities  on  the  roots  than  no  lesion  at  all,  for  this  would 
prove  that  the  insect  had  not  been  able  to  develop  in  the 


128 


AMERICAN    VINES. 


soils  where  the  hybrids  were  tried.     This  is  the  more  readily 
granted   as   the^  absolute   indemnity   of   American   vines   and 

therefore  of  their  hybrids 
with  V.  Vinifera  does  not 
exist,  except,  perhaps,  for 
the  Muscadinia  and  Am- 
pelosis. 

(e)  Crossings  and  Com- 
binations.— Is  it  possible 
to  give  precise  rules  help- 
ing to  forsee  the  results 
sought,  and  to  direct  the 
work  of  hybridization  ? 
The  numerous  works  on 
this  subject,  made  on 
different  plants,  by  Dar- 
win, Gartner,  Wichura, 
Decasine,  Naudin,  Niet- 
ner,  Nsegeli,  Focke,  etc., 
have  only  determined  the 
general  conditions  of 
hybridization  and  the  re- 
sults obtained,  but  do  not 
enable  any  fixed  mathe- 
matical rule  to  be  de- 
ducted, defining  in  what 
proportion  the  combina- 
tion, fusion,  or  juxtaposi- 
tion of  characters  and 
properties  of  plants  united 
in  individuals  resulting 
from  their  crossings  takes 
place.  The  result  of  the 
diverse  combinations  ob- 
tained by  hybridizing 
vines  is  certainly  difficult 
to  indicate — 4<  It  is  yet  a  very  obscure  subject,"  says  Millardet, 
"  upon  which  we  cannot  throw  light  until  many  years'  obser- 
vation complete  our  actual  experience." 

There  are,  however,  numerous  facts  definitely  known,  which 
may  be  foreseen  almost  with  certainty,  and  which  have  been 
discovered  by  Millardet.  We  consider  it  useful  to  rapidly 
enumerate  these,  examining  them  from  the  point  of  view  of 


Fig.  64. — Nodosities  and  Tuberosities  (a)  on 
vine  roots. 


CEPAGES. 


129 


Fig.  65. 

Large    penetrating 
tuberosities. 


Fig.  66. 
Large  tuberosities. 


T    Fig.  67.     . 

N  on-penetrating 

tuberosities. 


Fig.  68. 

Non-penetrating 
tuberosities    on 

3roots  of 
American  vines. 

resistance  to  phylloxera,  adaptation,  affinity  to  grafting,  and 
proclivity  of  hybrids  resulting  from  crossings  between 
American  and  European  vines. 

The  first  fact  to  be  taken  into  account  in  hybridizations,  is 
that   relating  to  the   sterility  of   the   pollen   of  flowers   with 


130  AMERICAN    VINES. 

short  stamens,  that  is  to  say,  of  all  hermaphrodite  flowers  of 
wild  vines.  If  the  observations  of  E.  Rathay  are  confirmed, 
as  they  appear  to  be  in  a  great  many  cases,  the  pollen  of 
these  flowers  should  not  be  used  as  male  element  in  fecunda- 
tion, as  it  seems  probable  that  .it  is  apt  not  to  germinate. 

Millardet  has  brought  forward  an  important  fact,  con- 
firmed by  other  experimenters,  and  which  seems  well  estab- 
lished as  far  as  the  transmissions  of  resistance  to  hybrids  is 
concerned.  Firstly,  it  is  evident  that  the  resistance  of  Vin- 
ifera  hybrids  will  always  be  inferior  to  that  of  the  American 
vines  used  in  the  crossing,  but  that  it  will  be  more  pronounced 
as  the  American  vine  used  is  more  resistant;  a  Vinifera  X 
Rupestris  should  a  priori  be  more  resistant  than  a  Vinifera  X 
Californica.  There  may  be  exceptions, — we  will  meet  them 
in  all  the  cases  we  are  going  to  study;  absolute  fixity  in  the 
results  obtained  with  the  same  elements  of  hybridization 
does  not  exist,  but  it  is  none  the  less  true,  however,  that  there 
is  a  relative  fixity  resulting  from  the  elements  entering  into 
the  combination.  The  most  important  fact  to  remember, 
from  this  point  of  <view,  is  that  relating  to  Americo-American 
hybrids.  It  is  undeniable,  and  demonstrated  by  facts,  that 
hybrids  resulting  from  the  union  of  resistant  American 
species  between  themselves  offer  a  constant  guarantee  of 
resistance,  which  is  never  the  case  when  the  element  Vinifera 
enters  into  the  combination. 

What  has  been  said  for  resistance  applies,  although  in  a 
less  positive  manner,  to  vigour.  A  given  Vinifera  united  to 
a  Rupestris  and  Mustang,  or  a  Monticola  and  ^stivalis,  will 
give  rise  to  products,  Vinifera  X  Rupestris,  Vinifera  X  Can- 
dicans,  more  vigorous  than  Vinifera  X  Monticola,  or  Vinifera 
X  ^Estivalis ;  however,  exceptions 'are  more  numerous  in  this 
case  than  in  the  above. 

It  is  also  well  known  that  when  an  American  vine,  Rupes- 
tris, for  instance,  is  used  as  a  male  element,  the  offsprings 
resulting  from  its  union  with  a  Vinifera  are  all  the  more 
resistant  and  vigorous  as  the  pollen  has  been  taken  from  an 
individual  with  male  flowers,  or,  but  to  a  lesser  degree,  from 
individuals  with  long  stamens,  if  such  exist  among  wild  vines. 

Finally,  from  the  same  point  of  view  of  resistance  (the 
recent  observations  by  Millardet,  as  well  as  those  made  by 
the  writers  on  numerous  hybrids  at  the  School  of  Agricul- 
ture, Montpellier,  throw  new  light  on  this  subject),  the  com- 
bination of  the  two  elements  of  hybridization  has  considerable 


/          CEPAf.ES.  131 

importance.  When  the  American  resistant  vine  plays  the 
part  of  male,  the  resistance  is  generally  more  pronounced 
than  in  the  opposite  case ;  a  Vinifera  X  Rupestris  is,  as  a  rule, 
more  resistant  than  a  Rupestris  X  Vinifera.  In  this  latter 
case  of  hybridization,  in  which  the  Vinifera  plays  the  part  of 
male,  the  offspring  are  generally  fecund  and  fructiferous. 

The  affinity  of  hybrids  to  the  grafting  of  different  varieties 
of  Vinifera  is  so  much  the  greater  as  the  parents  have  them- 
selves more  affinity  for  those  varieties.  For  instance,  a 
Labrusca  X  Rupestris  will  have  a  more  pronounced  affinity 
than  Rotundifolia  X  Rupestris.  All  binary  hybrids  con- 
taining the  element  Vinifera  will  have  more  affinity  for 
European  vines  than  a  pure  American  species  or  binary 
American  hybrids,  and  so  much  the  more  that  the  American 
species  has  itself  a  greater  affinity.  A  Labrusca  X  Vini- 
fera or  a  Berlandieri  X  Vinifera  would  have  more  pro- 
nounced properties  of  affinity  for  Vinifera  than  hybrids 
Rotundifolia  X  Vinifera  or  Lincecumii  X  Vinifera. 

As  for  adaptation,  one  may  evidently  foresee  that  the 
combined  elements  will  give  to  the  resulting  combination 
their  required  properties.  The  study  we  are  going  to  make 
of  the  hybrids  will  prove  this  conclusively.  As  the  Vinifera 
grows  under  almost  any  conditions,  we  can  forsee  that  the 
hybrids  between  Vinifera  and  American  species  will  have  a 
greater  geographical  area  of  adaptation  than  the  species  or 
hybrids  between  those  species;  for  instance,  a  Vinifera  X 
Labrusca  or  a  Vinifera  X  Riparia  will  grow  in  a  greater 
variety  of  soils  than  a  Riparia  X  Labrusca.  And,  again, 
a  Vinifera  X  Berlandieri  will  have  to  a  greater  degree  the 
property  of  adaptation  to  chalky  soils  than  a  Vinifera  X 
Rupestris  or  a  Vinifera  X  Riparia  for  instance,  and  our 
numerous  experiments  prove  that  this  is  really  a  fact. 

But  here,  as  in  any  other  case,  exceptions  may  exist,  the 
individuals  resulting  from  crossing  not  only  inheriting  the 
properties  of  their  parents,  but  also  acquiring  new  properties. 
A  few  important  cases  will  be  studied  in  the  chapter  on 
adaptations  (Solonis,  Riparia  X  Rupestris,  etc.). 

Up  to  the  present  we  have  only  considered  hybrids  result- 
ing from  the  union  of  two  species  or  binary  hybrids.  As 
for  hybrids  produced  by  more  complex  combinations,  by  the 
union  of  three,  four,  or  five  distinct  species,  it  is  not  easy  to 
state  definitely  the  results  that  would  be  obtained.  We  may 
expect  that  the  predominant  species  will  impress  on  the 


132  AMERICAN    VINES. 

hybrids  their  specific  properties.  But  here  exceptions  may 
still  be  more  numerous  than  in  the  previous  case,  on  account 
of  variations  resulting  in  the  sowing  of  ternary,  quarternary, 
or  more  complex  hybrids,  from  phenomena  of  reversion 
and  atavism. 

Finally,  there  is  a  fact,  shown,  we  believe,  for  the  first 
time  in  1886,  by  Millardet,  relative  to  the  creation  of  resistant 
hybrid  direct-producers.  This  fact  is  not  so  well  proved  as 
the  former,  but  our  observations,  together  with  those  of 
many  hybridizators,  seem  to  render  it  probable.  We  have 
stated  that  hybrids  between  European  and  American  vines 
in  which  the  American  vine  plays  the  part  of  male  are 
generally  little  fructiferous  and  very  resistant,  and  that,  on 
the  contrary,  those  in  which  the  Vinifera  plays  the  part  of 
male  are  little  or  not  resistant  and  more  fructiferous.  The 
fixation  of  the  productivity  in  binary  hybrids  seems,  there- 
fore, difficult  to  obtain.  Ternary  or  more  complex  hybrids, 
with  Vinifera  as  dominant  element,  may,  perhaps,  allow  us 
to  attain  this  end,  but  their  resistance  seems  very  difficult  to 
obtain,  if  we  judge  from  results  actually  acquired. 

It  is,  however,  certain  that  sowing,  without  new  hybridiza- 
tion, the  seeds  of  hybrids  individual  to  the  first  degree  will 
enable  us,  more  than  any  new  hybridization,  to  obtain  fruc- 
tiferous and,  perhaps,  resistant  individuals.  The  partial 
variations,  resulting  from  numerous  and  complex  phenomena 
of  reversions  and  atavism,  are  produced  in  this  case  in  a 
much  higher  degree  and  in  greater  diversity;  it  is,  therefore, 
among  these  partial  variations  that  we  will  with  greater 
certainty  obtain  fructiferous  and  resistant  vines. 

B. HYBRIDS    OF    AMERICAN   VINES. 

(America- Americans.) 

Hybrids    of    V.    Labrusca    and    V.     /Estivalis.  — The 

hybrids  of  V.  ^Estivalis  and  V.  Labrusca  are  rare  in  America 
in  their  wild  state;  they  are  only  vigorous  in  sandy  and  rich 
soils.  They  have  not  been  introduced  into  France,  and  do 
not  seem  to  present  any  cultural  interest. 

York-Madeira. — In  this  group  we  may  mention,  according  to 
Millardet,  the  York-Madeira  (Fig.  69),  one  of  the  first  varieties 
imported  into  Europe,  probably  before  the  time  of  the  invasion 
of  oidium.  It  is  almost  unknown  in  the  United  States.  Its 


CEPAGES. 


133 


Fig.  69.— Leaf  of  York -Madeira. 

resistance  to  phylloxera,  contrary  to  what  has  generally  been 
said,  is  not  high,  and  may  be  represented  by  the  number  n. 
Its  development  is  slow,  even  under  conditions  where  the 
phylloxera  does  not  check  it.  It  only  thrives  well  in 
northern  regions,  where  it  is  an  excellent  graft-bearer,  but 
only  in  fresh,  pebbly  soil,  composed  of  siliceous  or  hard 
calcareous  pebbles ;  it  is  equal  in  .vigour  to  other  graft- 
bearers  in  stiff  clay-siliceous  soils.  But,  under  these  con- 
ditions, Rupestris  is  far  superior. 

In  slightly  fertile  soil  the  York-Madeira  remains  very 
weak;  its  grafts  are  not  vigorous,  although  they  bear  much 
fruit,  but  the  fruit  does  not  ripen  well.  In  chalky  calcareous 


134  AMERICAN    VINES. 

soils  it  rapidly  becomes  yellow;  it  has,  how&ver,  a  certain 
resistance  to  chlorosis  in  good  groies  soils,  but  its  vigour  in 
such  soils  is  too  feeble  to  allow  its  utilization,  notwith- 
•  standing  its  free  rooting,  and  the  perfection  of  the  knitting- 
it  gives  when  grafted  with  almost  all  European  varieties.  It 
owes  its  facility  of  growing  from  cuttings  to  its  parent, 
V.  Labrusca.  To  sum  up,  it  is  a  graft-bearer  which  succeeds 
in  the  soils  of  the  northern  regions,  where  certain  Rupestris 
varieties  succeed  also,  with  the  advantage  of  being  far 
superior.  In  warm  regions  phylloxera  depresses  it,  except 
in  fertile  moist  soils,  where  the  Riparias  are  always  far 
superior  to  it. 

Its  grapes  are  very  foxy  and  harsh ;  it  cannot  therefore 
be  used  as  a  direct-producer.  It  is,  however,  cultivated  for 
its  fruit  in  some  parts  of  Italy,  where  the  rural  population 
put  up  with  it,  for  want  of  something  better. 

Hybrids  of  V.  Labrusca,  V.  >£stivalis,  and  V. 
Cinerea. — In  this  group  there  are  comprised,  according  to 
Millardet,  cepages  considered  as  pure  ^Estivalis,  such  as 
Cynthiana,,  Norton's  Virginia,  Hermann,  Pauline.  We  will 
mention  the  three  hybrids:  Concord  X  Cynthiana,  raised  by 
T.  V.  Munson,  Balsiger's  (Cynthiana  X  Martha),  Gold  Coin 
(Cynthiana  X  Martha).  These  three  hybrids  (yEstivalis  X 
Cinerea  X  Labrusca)  are  creations  without  interest  for  us. 

Cynthiana,  Hermann  and  Pauline  are  affected  to  a  high 
degree  by  calcareous  soils ;  •  they  have  therefore  preserved 
the  special  properties  of  the  two  principal  species  they 
originate  from  and  also  that  of  V.  Labrusca,  if,  as  Millardet 
thinks,  this  species  has  played  any  part  in  their  procreation. 
Their  resistance  to  phylloxera  is  as  follows : — 

Cynthiana          .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .          14 

Hermann  .  .          .  .          .  .          .  .          .  .          10 

Pauline  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .          '. .          12 

Hermann  and  Pauline  have  never  existed  except  in 
collections,  but  the  Cynthiana  has  been  propagated  in  some 
French  vineyards,  exclusively  as  a  direct-producer,  on  account 
of  its  clean  taste,  and  the  deep  and  bright  colour  of  its  wine. 
In  France  it  has  only  been  a  success  in  red  pebbly  siliceous 
soil;  it  is  in  soil  of  this  nature  that  it  is  almost  exclusively 
cultivated  in  America,  more  particularly  in  Virginia.  But, 
in  dry  and  warm  regions,  the  Cynthiana,  even  when  in  such 


CEP  AGES.  135 

soils,  does  not  grow;  it  requires  a  temperate,  rather  cold 
climate;  for  instance,  it  has  given  satisfactory  results  in  the 
granite  soils  of  the  north  of  Drome,  while  it  grows  poorly 
in  the  Alpine  diluvium  of  the  south  of  France.  This  vine 
is  practically  abandoned  nowadays,  and  will  never  be  used 
again  for  reconstruction.  The  Rupestris  grow  better  in  soils 
where  the  Cynthiana  could  succeed.  It  is  difficult  to  grow 
from  cuttings,  as  applies  also  to  V.  Cinerea  and  V. 
yEstivalis. 

Hybrids  of  V.  Labrusca,  V.  -XEstivalis.  and  V.  Ru- 
pestris.— These  are  crossings  between  York-Madeira  and 
Rupestris.  Obtained  artificially  in  France,  some  of  them 
possess  a  certain  degree  of  resistance  to  phylloxera ;  but,  like 
their  procreators,  they  are  greatly  affected  by  calcareous 
soils,  they  become  yellow  the  first  year  of  planting  out,  and 
the  second  year,  even  when  not  grafted,  have  partially  dis- 
appeared. This  group  of  hybrids  cannot,  therefore,  furnish 
any  graft-bearers  suitable  for  calcareous  soils. 

Hybrids  of  V.  Labrusca,  V.  >£stivalis,  V.  Rupestris, 
and  V.  Riparia. — These  hybrids  are  the  result  of  the  cross- 
ing of  York-Madeira  with  Riparia  X  Rupestris.  The  strain 
imparted  to  them  by  the  ^stivalis  and  Labrusca  lessens  the 
properties  of  adaptation  which  might  have  been  transmitted 
by  the  Riparia  X  Rupestris.  They  become  yellow  rapidly  in 
the  calcareous  soils  of  the  Charentes,  and  are  therefore 
useless. 

Hybrids  of  V.  Labrusca  and  V.  Cordifolia. — A  few  of 

these  hybrids  are  found,  in  a  wild  state,  in  places  where  the 
two  species  are  mixed  (rich  siliceous  soils),  in  the  northern 
states  of  America  and  especially  in  Virginia.  They  have 
not  been  tried  in  France,  but  their  origin  enables  us  to 
assert  that  their  value  of  adaptation  would  be  inferior  to  that 
of  other  well-known  graft-bearers. 

Hybrids  of  V.  Labrusca  and  V.  Riparia. — These  wild 
hybrids  are  very  numerous  in  the  forests  of  the  littoral  of 
the  Atlantic,  in  America ;  very  numerous  also  are  those 
artificially  created  by  hybridization.  The  former  have  not 
been  introduced  into  France;  and,  further,  they  are  of  little 
value.  Like  Labrusca  and  Riparia,  they  grow  in  fertile 
siliceous  soil. 


136  AMERICAN    VINES. 

Amongst  the  cepages  which,  as  shown  by  Millardet,  are 
hybrids  of  V.  Riparia  and  V.  Labrusca,  we  will  mention : 
Taylor  and  its  seedlings: — Noah,.  Elvira,  Faith,  Trans- 
parent, Montefiore,  Amber  Queen,  Etta,  and  Elvira  No.  100 
of  Jaeger  (the  two  latter  are  seedlings  of  Elvira)  ;  Clinton 
and  its  seedlings: — Vialla,  Black  Pearl,  Bacchus,  Ariadne, 
etc.;  finally,  Oporto,  Blue  Dyer,  Uhland,  Marion,  Conqueror, 
Sack,  Ironclad,  Luty,  Ferrand's  Michigan,  Missouri 
Riesling,  Grein's  Golden,  etc. ;  and  a  series  of  forms  which 
are  certainly  Riparia  hybrids,  and  possess  to  a  -very  great 
degree  the  characters  of  Labrusca,  such  as  Catawba  and  its 
seedlings: — Diana,  lona,  Mottled,  Jefferson  (hybrid  of 
Concord  X  lona).  We  may  also  mention  more  complex 
hybrids,  such  as  Empire  State  (Clinton  X  Hartford  Pro- 
lific), etc. 

The  V.  Labrusca  transmits  through  its  hybrids  a  great 
affinity  for  grafting,  v  a  large  trunk,  but  also  a  limited 
resistance  to  the  attacks  of  phylloxera,  the  more  limited  as 
the  influence  of  the  Riparia  is  less  pronounced  (Ironclad, 
Luty,  Missouri  Riesling,  Catawba,  Diana).  Most  of  them, 
however,  are  more  resistant  than  V.  Labrusca.  The  follow- 
ing, are  the  relative  resistances  of  the  principal  of  these  : — 


Taylor  .  .  13 

Noah  .  .  14 

Elvira  .  .  10 

Clinton  .  .  8 

Vialla  .  .  12 

Black  Pearl    .  .  12 

Bacchus  8 


Operto  .  .  12 

Blue  Dyer  .  .  9 

Uhland  .  .  9 

Marion  .  .  16 

Catawba  .  .  4 

Diana  4 


These  hybrids  have  larger  roots  (Taylor,  Clinton,  Vialla) 
than  V.  Riparia,  owing  to  the  action  of  V.  Labrusca.  Like 
the  species  they  originate  from,  they  do  very  badly  in  cal- 
careous soils  (Vialla),  although  better  than  V.  Labrusca. 

Taylor. — The  Taylor  has  been  much  used  as  a  graft-bearer ; 
it  constitutes  important  vineyards  in  the  south  of  France, 
which  are  actually  twenty-four  years  of  age,  and  have  been 
grafted  twenty-two  years.  The  cepage  is  an  excellent  graft- 
bearer,  knitting  very  well  with  most  European  varieties, 
having  a  large  trunk,  imparting  good  productivity  and  early 
maturity  to  the  grafts  it  bears.  When  grown  in  suitable 
soils  (free,  fresh,  rich  marls,  or  blue  clay)  it  constitutes  an 
excellent  graft-bearer,  and  phylloxera  does  not  weaken  it  too 
much ;  but  in  dry,  poor,  calcareous  soils  it  rapidly  succumbs 


CEPAGES. 


137 


to  the  attacks  of  phylloxera.  It  is  one  of  the  cepages  which 
are  only  sufficiently  resistant  when  they  are  adapted  to  the 
soil;  its  large  roots  allow  it  to  thrive  better  than  Riparia  in 
compact  soils.  The  Taylor  is  now  actually  abandoned  for 
other  graft-bearers,  which  are  superior  to  it  in  the  rare  soils 
to  which  it  is  entirely  suited. 

The  Taylor  is  less  affected  by  chlorosis  than  cepages 
derived  from  V.  Labrusca ;  as  long  as  it  is  not  too  much 
phylloxerated  it  resists  chlorosis  even  better  than  Riparia 
and  Rupestris,  for  this  reason  it  must  be  a  more  complex 
hybrid  than  assumed  by  Millardet;  perhaps  it  has  a  strain 
of  Vinifera. 


Fig.  70.— Leaf  of  Noah. 


Noah. — A  vigorous  cepage  (Fig.  70),  having  a  large  trunk, 
growing  well  in  slightly  compact,  good,  fresh  soil,  but  greatly 
affected  by  chlorosis  in  calcareous  soil,  even  when  growing  on 
its  own  roots.  This  is  contrary  to  what  is  generally  stated.  As 
a  graft-bearer  it  is  much  inferior  to  many  others,  and  has  no 


I3o  AMERICAN    VINES. 

special  merit.  It  is  one  of  the  most  prolific  American  vines 
having  white  grapes,  but  its  fruit  is  foxy,  and  the  brandy 
made  from  its  wine  always  retains  a  peculiar  taste,  which 
renders  it  unsaleable  in  commerce;  as  a  cepage  it  is  without 
actual  value. 

Elvira  is  still  more  productive  than  Noah,  but  its  white 
grapes  are  foxy,  and  its  resistance  to  phylloxera  is  very 
inferior;  it  is  similarly  affected  by  chlorosis  in  calcareous 
soil,  and  only  thrives  in  very  rich  fresh  soils,  on  account  of 
its  sensitiveness  to  phylloxera ;  it  is,  therefore,  a  valueless 
cepage,  and  has  been  long  since  entirely  discarded.  The 
Elvira  No.  100  of  Jaeger  is  more  prolific,  but  has  the  same 
original  defects. 

Clinton. — Before  the  knowledge  and  multiplication  of 
Riparias,  Jacquez,  and  Rupestris,  etc.,  the  Clinton  (Fig.  71) 


ig.  71. — Leaf  of  Clinton. 


CEPAGES.  139 

had  been  used  as  a  graft-bearer  in  the  south  of  France;  it  is 
now  discarded,  for  in  soils  where  it  succeeds  (mellow,  fertile, 
deep,  fresh,  non-calcareous),  Riparias  are  much  superior  to 
it,  and  much  more  resistant  to  phylloxera. 

The  Clinton  furnished  the  first  example  of  combined 
influence  of  adaptation  and  phylloxera.  In  calcareous  and 
even  in  slightly  fertile  but  dry  soils,  where  its  development 
cannot  oppose  the  attacks  of  the  phylloxera,  it  rapidly  dis- 
appears. In  soils  to  which  it  is  perfectly  adapted  the  insect: 
does  not  weaken  it  much.  There  are  still  in  existence  in  the 
rich  alluvials  of  the  Herault,  grafts  made  on  Clinton  twenty- 
five  years  of  age,  generally  very  vigorous,  except  in  very  dry 
years,  when  the  phylloxera  is  able  to  check  its  normal 
development. 

The  relative  feeble  action  of  the  phylloxera  accounts  for 
the  Clinton  having  been  sold  under  the  name  of  Plant 
Pouzin  in  certain  non-calcareous  regions  of  the  Centre,  and  it 
has  given  fair  cultural  results  as  a  direct-producer  (Ardeche). 
It  produces  wines,  however,  which,  although  not  very  foxy, 
are  inferior,  and  by  grafting  on  Riparia  we  obtain,  in  regions 
suited  to  the  Clinton,  far  superior  results  in  both  quality  and 
quantity.  The  Clinton  is  now  actually  discarded  in  every 
region.  Its  sensitiveness  to  calcareous  soils  was  noticed 
in  America,  in  the  islands  of  Lake  Erie ;  it  rapidly 
becomes  distorted  when  in  soft  Devonian  calcareous  soils. 
In  many  regions  in  France,  and  especially  in  the  chalky  soils 
of  the  Charentes,  it  dies  two  years  after  planting  out,  even 
in  the  absence  of  phylloxera,  and  sooner  than  Noah  or 
Vialla. 

The  Clinton  roots  freely  from  cuttings,  and  gives  good 
knittings  when  grafted  with  most  of  the  European  varieties. 

Vialla. — A  cepage  obtained  from  Clinton  seedlings,  propa- 
gated by  Laliman,  and  named  in  honor  of  Louis  Vialla  (Fig. 
72).  Its  hybrid  nature  was  ascertained  by  Millardet.  This 
graft-bearer  has  played  an  important  part  in  the  reconstruction 
of  vines  in  the  centre  (France),  and  has  beeri  the  standard, 
for  instance,  in  the  granitic  and  siliceous  soils  of  Beaujolais ; 
it  thrives  well  as  a  graft-bearer  in  the  north  and  centre, 
where  its  resistance  is  favoured  by  the  climate  and  soil.  In 
dry  warm  regions  in  the  south  of  France,  after  a  few  suc- 
cessive dry  years,  the  phylloxera  weakens  it,  and  may  some- 
times render  its  cultivation  impossible;  this  was  shown  in  the 
first  part  of  this  work.  The  Vialla  was  limited  to  the  centre, 


140 


AMERICAN    VINES. 


north,  and  south-west  of  France,  and  was  exclusively  cul- 
tivated in  light  siliceous  soils.  It  was  excluded,  with  good 
reasons,  from  all  calcareous  soils;  amongst  the  graft-bearers 
which  were  most  in  use,  it  is  the  most  affected  by 


Fig.  72.— Leaf  of  Vialla. 


calcareous  soils.  In  siliceous  and  fairly  fertile  soil  it  has  a 
very  great  vigour,  and  is  one  of  those  giving  the  best  results ; 
occasionally  its  excessive  vigour  causes  non-setting.  Of  al! 
the  American  vines  it  roots  most  freely  from  cuttings,  and  the 
bench  grafts  give  with  it  the  highest  percentage  of  knittings. 


CEPAGES.  141 

The  European  scion  knits  well,  the  trunk  remains  large,  the 
productivity  is  fairly  great,  and  the  maturation  normal.  It 
knits  well  with  all  French  varieties,  even  with  Camay, 
which  is  known  to  be  one  of  the  most  difficult  to 
graft. 

The  Vialla  has  rendered  undeniable  services  in  siliceous  or 
clay-siliceous  soils,  sound  and  rich,  of  the  centre,  north,  and 
south-west  of  France,  but  the  writers  are  of  opinion  that  for 
the  soils  of  these  regions  one  may  actually  use  graft-bearers 
having  an  equal  adaptation  and  a  much  greater  resistance 
to  phylloxera, — Rupestris  du  Lot,  Rupestris  Martin,  for 
instance. 

Franklin  greatly  resembles  Vialla,  and  has,  from  the 
points  of  view  of  adaptation  and  resistance,  similar  qualities 
and  defects,  but  is  inferior  in  vigour.  Ferrand's  Michigan 
is  as  vigorous  as  Vialla,  and  presents  the  same  advantages; 
as  also  the  Oporto,  which  is,  perhaps,  superior  in  vigour  as 
well  as  in  resistance  to  chlorosis,  which  its  slight  similarity 
to  Riparia  explains. 

Several  other  hybrids  of  Riparia  and  Labrusca  were 
obtained  in  France ;  they  all  have  the  same  aptitudes  as  the 
former,  as  well  as  similar  defects,  varying  in  intensity  accord- 
ing as  they  are  nearer  one  or  other  of  their  procreators. 

Hybrids  of  V.  Labrusca,  V.  Riparia,  and  V. 
Rupestris. — Obtained  artificially  in  France.  Their  resist- 
ance to  phylloxera  is  greater  than  any  of  the  previous,  the 
Labrusca  forming  one  quarter  only  in  their  constitution. 
They  are  not  yet  well  known,  and  have  so  far  only  been 
experimented  with  in  chalky  soil,  where  they  become  very 
yellow. 

Huntingdon  is  a  hybrid  of  this  group,  propagated  in 
several  vineyards  of  the  south-west  and  centre.  This  vine 
resembles  the  Rupestris  very  much  by  its  leaves  and  habit, 
and  the  Labrusca  by  the  disagreeable  taste  of  its  fruit.  It 
is  fairly  fructiferous,  but  slightly  -vigorous  only,  and  of  no 
value  whatever  as  a  direct-producer.  It  is  not  too  much 
affected  by  calcareous  soils,  and  in  some  groies  soils  of  the 
Charentes  it  grows  vigorously,  when  not  grafted,  and 
unattacked  by  phylloxera.  Its  properties  of  adaptation 
results  most  likely  from  the  combination  Riparia  X  Rupestris, 
which  intervenes  in  its  formation. 


142 


AMERICAN    VINES. 


Taylor-Narbonne. — This  vine  seems  to  be  the  result  of  a 
seed  of  Taylor,  sown  by  Narbonne  (Fig.  73).  Despetis  studied 
it  with  great  care  at  his  property,  Yeuses  (Herault),  where 
it  gave  indisputable  results  in  calcareous  soils,  as  fully 
explained  in  a  detailed  study  published  by  Jules  Pastre. 

The  general  characters  of  the  Taylor-Narbonne  are  very 
similar  to  those  of  Taylor.  There  has  probably  been  a  hybri- 
dizing influence  of  Riparia,  endowing  it  with  some  of  the 
characters  of  Riparia  X  Rupestris,  which  accounts  for  its 
relative  resistance  to  calcareous  soils. 


.  73- — Leaf  of  Taylor-Narbonne. 


CEPAGES.  143 

Whatever  its  real  relations  may  be,  the  Taylor-Narbonne 
has  a  resistance  to  calcareous  soils  comparable  and  even 
superior  to  most  Riparia  X  Rupestris.  It  may,  therefore, 
from  this  point  of  view,  be  used  in  reconstitution.  Despetis, 
who  studied  it  during  many  years,  thinks  it  has  a  high  phyl- 
loxeric  resistance ;  it  is  certainly  superior  to  that  of  Solonis. 

Figure  73  shows  very  clearly  the  characters  of  the  leaf  of 
Taylor-Narbonne,  which  are  much  more  carved  out  than  that 
of  Taylor.  This  cepage  is  vigorous,  its  cuttings  root  freely, 
knit  well  with  most  European  vines,  and  give  fructiferous 
grafts.  If  its  resistance  to  phylloxera  is  proved,  it  will 
ultimately  be  used  in  the  same  surroundings  as  Solonis  was 
formerly  and  also  in  poor  sandy  soils  free  from  salt. 

Hybrids  of  V.  Californica  and  V.  Arizonica. — These 
hybrids  are  very  numerous ;  a  scale  of  successive  forms  inter- 
mediate between  the  two  species  has  been  found.  They  have 
almost  always  been  introduced  into  France  under  the  name  of 
pure  Californica  or  pure  Arizonica,  and  have  remained  in  col- 
lections ;  they  are  inferior  in  vigour  to  the  Californica,  and  in 
resistance  to  the  Arizonica.  They  seem  to  require  richer  soil 
than  the  latter,  and  are,  therefore,  of  no  interest.  They  suc- 
cumb to  chlorosis,  like  the  Rupestris. 

Hybrids     of    V.     Candicans     and    V.    Berlandieri.— 

On  account  of  the  co-existence  of  Candicans  and  Berlandieri 
on  the  banks  of  the  rivers  and  hills  of  Texas,  on  account 
also  of  the  almost  continuous  florescence  of  the  latter,  a  great 
number  of  hybrids  have  been  produced  in  the  wild  state, 
between  these  two  species.  Intermediate  between  these 
two  species  are  found,  and  almost  in  infinite  number,  many 
forms  of  Berlandieri,  with  abundant  woolly  hair  on  the 
young  leaves  and  young  shoots,  considered  thus  far  as  pure ; 
they  are  only  hybrids  of  Candicans  more  or  less  defined.  The 
Berlandieri  Planchon  is  an  example  of  this. 

These  hybrids  are  occasionally  isolated  on  the  chalky  hills  of 
Texas,  where  they  are  generally  found  in  rich  and  fresh  soils ; 
a  certain  number,  especially  those  which  have  preserved  to  a 
high  degree  the  characters  of  the  Berlandieri,  are  sometimes 
found  in  dry  and  slightly  fertile  soils,  but  rarely  in  marl  and 
bluish-grey  soils.  And,  what  is  more,  the  influence  of  the 
Mustang  has  diminished  the  resistance  to  chlorosis  of  the 
Berlandieri ;  this  explains  why  the  hybrids  experimented 
with  in  the  chalky  soils  of  .  Cognac  have  been  rather 


144 


AMERICAN    VINES. 


sensitive  to  chlorosis.  The  Mustang  has  also  diminished 
the  natural  resistance  of  the  Berlandieri  to  phylloxera 
but  has  endowed  it  with  great  vigour. 

Certain  hybrids  of  Berlandieri  and  Candicans  (form  Barnes) 
are  vines  of  extraordinary  vigour. 

The  Berlandieri  X  Candicans  inherit  the  strong  roots  of 
the  Mustang,  and  from  both  species  the  defect  of  not  being 
easily  multiplied  by  cuttings.  T.  V.  Munson  has,  however, 
isolated  three  forms,  named  Berlandieri  X  Candicans  No.  I, 
No.  2,  and  No.  3,  striking  fairly  well  from  cuttings  and  fairly 
vigorous.  The  following  table  gives  the  relative  vigour  and 
resistance  to  phylloxera,  in  fairly  calcareous  soils,  for  the 
principal  forms  of  Berlandieri  X  Candicans : — 

Vigour. 

15 
16 


Berlandieri  X  Candicans  No.  1 
No.  2 


No.  3 

Barnes 

Bouisset 


17 
20 
17 


Resistance. 

15 
15 
15 


15 
16 


Experiments  made  in  the  chalky  soils  of  Cognac  have 
shown,  what  was  to  be  foreseen,  that  these  cepages  have  only 
a  limited  resistance  to  chlorosis.  They  should  only  be  tried 


Fig.  74. — Leaf  of  Barnes. 


CEPAGES.  145 

in  certain  whitish  marly  soils,  in  which  the  proportion  of 
carbonate  of  lime  is  not  too  high. 

Barnes. — A  form  isolated  by  T.  V.  Munson,  growing  badly 
from  cuttings,  of  extraordinary  vigour,  with  large  trunk, 
strong  canes,  slightly  fluted,  of  a  blackish-brown  colour. 
Leaves  (Fig.  74)  medium,  very  thick,  sub-cordiform, 
slightly  folded  along  the  mid-rib,  very  green  and  lustrous ; 
petiolar  sinus  open,  deep  V  shape ;  under-face  of  a  dull 
green,  with  fluffy  hair  on  the  principal  ribs,  which  are 
strong  and  deprived  of  the  stiff  hair  of  the  Berlandieri ; 
teeth  only  slightly  indicated  by  a  mucron.  Most  of  the 
Berlandieri  X  Candicans  have  no  stiff  hair  on  the  ribs.  This 
form  becomes  yellow  during  the  first  year  of  planting  out  in 
the  chalks  of  Cognac. 

Berlandieri  X  Candicans  Bouisset. — A  form  isolated  and 
named  by  T.  V.  Munson ;  according  to  him  it  roots  freely. 
This  form  is  certainly  a  hybrid  of  Berlandieri  and  Mustang; 
it  seems  to  be  only  slightly  vigorous,  and  has  become  very 
yellow  in  the  chalks  of  Cognac.  Its  habit  is  bushy ;  canes 
with  short  internodes,  dull  hazy  colour,  with  slightly 
indicated  flutings ;  numerous  woolly  patches  of  hair  on 
the  young  shoots.  The  leaves  are  small,  very  thick, 
slightly  folded  along  the  mid-rib,  sides  plane,  rudimentary 
teeth;  petiolar  sinus  V  shape,  deep,  wide;  upper- face 
deep  green,  shining;  under-face  glabrous,  lighter  green, 
almost  dull ;  petiole  slender,  with  woolly  hair. 

Lady-Love. — A  form  isolated  by  T.  V.  Munson,  and 
possessing  many  of  the  characters  of  the  Mustang;  canes 
fluted,  similar  to  V.  Berlandieri.  Leaves  medium  or  large, 
thick  and  plane,  dull ;  petiolar  sinus  deep,  lozenge  shape ; 
principal  ribs  covered  with  long  woolly  hair,  and  white  on 
the  under-face.  This  cepage  has  not  been  experimented 
upon  in  France,  but  does  not  seem  to  be  superior  to  Mustang; 
it  roots  freely. 

Hybrids  of  V.  Candicans  and  V.  Rupestris  — These 
hybrids  have  existed  for  a  long  time  in  France ;  they  were 
first  isolated  by  J.  E.  Planchon,  under  the  name  of 
V.  Champini  or  Champin  vines.  Their  general  characters 
are  very  similar  to  those  of  Monticola  X  Candicans  and 
Berlandieri  X  Candicans.  The  Rupestris  X  Candicans  com- 
prise a  very  numerous  series  of  forms  intermediate  between 
Rupestris  and  Candicans ;  some  have  the  bushy  habit,  the 
small,  shining,  folded  leaf  of  the  Rupestris,  others  have  the 


146 


AMERICAN    VINES. 


Fig-  75- — Leaf  of  Champin. 

plane,  thick,  rather  large  leaf  characteristic  of  the  Mustang; 
they  all  have  the  fluffy  hair  on  the  young  leaves  and  shoots 
peculiar  to  the  Mustang.  The  forms  with  small  shining 
leaves  may  be  grouped  under  the  name  of  glabrous  Champin 
(Fig.  75)  ;  those  with  large  tomentose  leaves  under  the  name 
of  tomentose  Champin.  The  former  have  a  resistance  of  14: 
the  latter,  more  vigorous,  have,  however,  less  resistance,  due 
to*  the  Mustang,  which  may  be  represented  by  12.  All  these 
forms  do  not  root  freely  from  cuttings;  the  glabrous  forms, 
however,  root  easier  than  the  tomentose,  which  seems  due  to 
the  predominance  of  Rupestris.  They  may,  however,  be 


CEPAGES.  147 

very  easily  multiplied  by  summer  layering,  which  has 
often  been  successfully  done.  Champin  isolated  five  forms ; 
four  different  forms  were  isolated  at  the  School  of  Agricul- 
ture, Montpellier. 

The  Champins  grow  in  Texas  (environs  of  Cleburne),  in 
cretaceous  soils,  blackish  and  pebbly,  and  also  fairly  rich  and 
calcareous,  with  a  subsoil  composed  of  calcareous  rock,  hard 
and  laminated,  with  reefs  of  bluish  or  white  clay,  or  of  the 
blue  marl  alternating.  The  following  is  the  physical  com- 
position of  these  soils,  analyzed  by  B.  Chauzit : — 

Clay  26.25  per  cent. 

Sand          14.12 

Carbonate  of  Lime         .  .          .  .      59 . 05 

But  the  Champins  have  never  been  found  in  chalky  soils. 

They  have  resisted  chlorosis  in  France  much  better  than 
Riparias,  or  even  Jacquez  in  fairly  calcereous  soils;  in 
chalks,  they  become  yellow  without  getting  stunted,  but  soon 
die  when  grafted.  In  certain  yellowish  marls  of  the  miocene 
of  the  south  of  France,  the  most  vigorous  forms  have  been 
grafted  with  different  varieties  since  fourteen  years  ago.  They 
have  always  given  good  results  where  Riparia  and  Jacquez 
disappeared  under  the  action  of  chlorosis. 

To  sum  up,  the  Champin  possess  a  certain  resistance  to 
phylloxera  very  much  inferior  to  Berlandieri  or  its  hybrids; 
and,  as  they  are  less  resistant  to  phylloxera,  as  their  vigour 
is  only  equal  or  below  that  of  the  latter,  there  is  no  need  for 
propagating  them. 

Hybrids   of  V.    Candicans   and  V.   Mpnticola. — These 

are  as  varied  and  as  vigorous  as  the  Berlandieri  X  Candicans. 
They  grow  in  less  rich  soils  than  the  latter,  sometimes  even  in 
fairly  calcareous  soils,  but  they  have  never  been  found  grow- 
ing in  the  wild  state  in  chalky  limestone ;  they  grow  natur- 
ally in  blackish-red  soils,  more  or  less  deep,  resting  on  fis- 
sured lithographic  limestone.  In  such  soils,  dry  and  slightly 
fertile,  one  of  the  most  interesting  forms  of  these  hybrids, 
the  Monticola  X  Candicans  of  Belton,  has  an  extraordinary 
vigour  and  trunk  of  wonderful  dimensions.  The  characters 
of  these  hybrids  present  the  whole  scale  of  intermediates 
between  the  Mustang  and  Monticola.  It  is  evident  that  the 
greater  the  influence  of  the  Mustang  the  smaller  the  resist- 
ance to  chlorosis,  the  greater  that  of  the  Monticola  the  less 
vigour. 


148 


AMERICAN    VINES. 


T.  V.  Munson  has  isolated  two  forms  of  these  hybrids. 
One,  the  Gwyn  grape,  of  the  County  of  Lampasas,  has 
medium,  thin,  lustrous  leaves,  with  small  patches  of  fluffy  hair 
on  the  ribs  of  the  under  face,  wide  triangular  sharp  teeth. 
The  other,  the  Sanford  grape  of  the  County  of  Bell,  with 
small,  thick,  slightly  tri-lobed,  elongated  leaves,  plane,  with 
very  abundant  whitish  tomentum  on  the  petiole  and  shoots, 
long  hair  on  the  principal  ribs  of  the  upper-face,  and 
araneous  patches  of  hair  on  all  the  veins  of  the  under-face. 
These  characters  show  that  in  these  two  forms  which  root 
freely  from  cuttings,  according  to  T.  V.  Munson,  the  Mus- 
tang predominates,  which  may  throw  doubt  on  the  value  of 
these  cepages  which  have  not  been  tried  in  France. 

Belton. — This  is  the  most  interesting  hybrid  of  this 
group,  although  it  is  rather  difficult  to  propagate  by  cut- 
tings. Its  resistance  to  phylloxera  is  superior  to  that  of 


Fig.  76 — Leaf  of  Belton. 


CEP  AGES.  149 

Solonis,  and  may  be  expressed  by  the  number  16;  its  vigour, 
as  already  mentioned,  is  higher  than  that  of  the  majority  of 
American  vines.  In  the  chalks  of  Cognac  this  hybrid  became 
yellow,  although  not  grafted,  but  without  becoming  stunted. 
Its  resistance  to  chlorosis  is  certainly  inferior  to  that  of 
V.  Berlandieri,  but  it  might  be  of  some  value  for  compact, 
fairly  calcareous  marls,  for  which  it  would  seem  to  be  indi- 
cated on  account  of  its  strong  roots. 

The  Belton  has  strong,  cylindrical  canes,  with  numerous 
whitish,  fluffy  hairs.  Its  leaves  (Fig.  76)  are  plane,  thick, 
tough,  the  lateral  lobes  indicated  by  longer  teeth,  the  termi- 
nal lobe  triangular;  teeth  sharp,  normal  to  the  limb,  like 
Monticola ;  upper-face  dull-green,  araneous  hair  on  the  prin- 
cipal and  secondary  ribs  of  the  under-face.  The  consistence 
of  the  parenchyma  and  the  aspect  of  the  leaf  seem  to  indicate 
a  hybridizing  action  on  the  Berlandieri  which  would  make  the 
Belton,  therefore,  a  ternary  hybrid. 

Hybrids  of  V.  Candicans  and  V.  Riparia. — These 
hybrids  were  indicated  by  Millardet  and  discovered  by 
H.  Jaeger.  Numerous  wild  forms  of  it  are  to  be  found  in  the 
north  of  Texas,  on  the  banks  of  the  Red  River,  in  very  fertile, 
sandy,  red  alluvials.  It  acquires,  under  these  conditions,  a 
very  great  development  of  the  canes,  and  fairly  large  dimen- 
sions of  trunk.  An  individual  vine,  cultivated  since  1888  at 
the  School  of  Agriculture,  Montpellier,  has  always  had  a 
remarkable  development  in  a  blue  non-chlorosing  clay.  This 
hybrid  may  be  of  some  value  for  compact  clayey,  but  only 
slightly  calcareous,  soils.  It  roots  freely  and  has  a  large  trunk. 
Its  leaves  (Fig.  77)  are  large,  plane,  thick,  orbicular,  the  five 
lobes  indicated  by  longer  teeth ;  petiolar  sinus  widely  open, 
with  straight  sides;  upper- face  deep-green,  varnished;  under- 
face  dull-green,  with  numerous  patches  of  long,  araneous  hair 
on  ribs,  petioles,  and  canes.  Canes  stout,  vinous-brown, 
straight. 

Hybrids  of  V.  Candicans,  V.  Riparia,  and  V.  Rupes- 
tris  (?). — Certain  forms  of  this  numerous  group  of  hybrids 
are  connected  with  Riparia  X  Candicans,  in  a  -very  distinct 
way,  in  their  ampelographic  characters ;  they  constitute 
what  T.  V.  Munson  considered  as  a  species,  the  V.  Novo- 
Mexicana,  and  amongst  them  Solonis. 

The  Novo-Mexicana  of  Munson  comprises  a  group  of  vines, 
rather  than  a  unique  form ;  most  of  them  are  similar  to 


150 


AMERICAN    VINES. 


Fig.  77. — Leaf  of  Riparia   X  Candicans. 

Solonis,  and  others  differ  only  by  the  less  dense  tomentum 
or  by  the  complete  absence  of  hair;  the  general  shape  of 
the  leaves,  the  acuteness  and  direction  of  the  teeth  are  always 
those  of  the  Solonis  type.  Certain  forms  of  Novo-Mexicana 
only  differ  insignificantly  from  Riparia  X  Candicans ;  they 
always  have  thinner  leaves. 

These  hybrids  remain  fairly  constant  in  their  characters  in 
the  wild  state  over  a  fairly  large  zone.  Their  seedlings  pre- 
serve the  general  characters  rather  well,  which  induced  T.  V. 
Munson  to  consider  them  as  a  species.  They  are  obviously 
hybrids,  in  which  the  characters  of  V.  Riparia  and  V. 
Candicans  are  easy  to  detect.  Millardet  considers,  perhaps 


CEPAGES.  151 

with  reason,  that  these  are  ternary  hybrids,  into  which 
Rupestris  also  enters.  The  Rupestris  is  not  to  be  found  in 
regions  where  the  Novo-Mexicans  grows,  but  Millardet  gives 
an  instance  of  Solonis  seedlings  with  Rupestris  characters. 
A  forr$  of  Novo-Mexicana,  the  Mobeetie,  has  very  decided 
characters  of  V.  Rupestris. 

The  Novo-Mexicana  and  Solonis  have  been  found  growing 
together  on  the  banks  of  the  Red  River,  extreme  north  of 
Texas,  in  cretaceous  soils.  The  soils  of  the  banks  of  the 
Red  River  are  generally  rich,  red,  sandy,  often  moist,  and 
always  fresh ;  the  subsoil  is  composed  of  white  calcareous 
concretions,  fairly  hard,  fissured,  through  which  the  roots 
penetrate.  T.  V.  Munson  has  observed  the  Novo-Mexicana 
in  lithographic  limestones  and  in  rather  hard  chalky  soils, 
covered  with  a  layer  of  rich  blackish  soil,  of  a  thickness 
of  14  to  16  inches.  The  Solonis  and  Novo-Mexicana  grow 
naturally  in  soils  containing  a  moderate  percentage  of  car- 
bonate of  lime. 

The  Solonis  is  the  only  form  of  Novo-Mexicana  experi- 
mented upon  in  France  since  the  invasion  of  phylloxera,  that 
is  to  say,  since  30  years,  and  is  one  of  the  American  vines 
which  succeeded  best  in  calcareous  soils,  with  relatively  low 
percentages  of  carbonate  of  lime,  which  accounts  for  the 
importance  it  had  at  the  beginning  of  the  reconstitution.  In 
chalky,  soft,  and  white  limestone  it  generally  develops  well, 
as  long  as  it  remains  ungrafted.  It  never  becomes  chlorosed 
to  any  extent,  but  when  grafted  it  rapidly  becomes  stunted.  In 
ground,  the  soil  of  which  is  calcereous,  but  fresh  and  deep  ( 16 
to  20  inches),  resting  on  a  chalky  or  white  marly  subsoil,  where 
all  other  vines  (Rupestris,  Riparia,  Vialla)  become  chlorosed 
and  die  rapidly,  the  Solonis  has  always  given  good  results. 
Upon  the  whole,  many  calcareous  regions  have  been  recon- 
stituted with  success  on  Solonis,  regions  which  it  would  have 
been  impossible  to  reconstitute  with  any  other  then  known 
cepage.  Such  were  the  Blayais,  Charentes,  south  of  France, 
Dordogne,  etc.  In  moderately  calcareous,  but  fresh  and 
fertile  soils,  its  grafts  are  fine,  very  fructiferous,  ripening 
early.  Many  vineyards  planted  under  these  circumstances 
have  now  been  grafted  for  nineteen  to  twenty-one  years.  And, 
moreover^  it  is  the  best  graft-bearer  for  damp  or  brackish 
soils;  in  the  latter  soils  no  other  graft-bearers  are  superior. 
Graft-bearers  are  actually  in  existence  (Riparia  X  Rupestris, 
Rupestris  du  Lot)  almost  equal  to  the  Solonis  so  far  as 


152  AMERICAN    VINES. 

resistance  to  chlorosis  is  concerned,  and  possessing  a  high 
degree  of  resistance  to  phylloxera.  They  are  to  be  pre- 
ferred to  Solonis,  except  in  the  case  of  damp  or  brackish 
soils. 

The  Solonis  and  other  forms  of  Novo-Mexicana  do  not  owe 
their  resistance  to  chlorosis  to  the  species  they  originate  from ; 
we  are  therefore  forced  to  admit  that  this  property  is  an 
independent  character,  acquired  by  an  actual  selection  in  the 
surroundings  where  they  naturally  grow. 

All  this  group  of  hybrids  comprise  forms  which  root  freely 
from  cuttings,  are  vigorous,  and  have  a  large  trunk.  Their 
resistance  to  phylloxera  is  certainly  not  very  high ;  the 
Solonis  have  even  been  used  as  a  limit  in  the  study  of 
resistance  to  the  insect.  It  bears  numerous  nodosities  and 
tuberosities,  sometimes  penetrating,  followed  by  grave  con- 
sequences. The  phylloxera  weakens  Solonis  to  such  an 
extent  that  sometimes  in  dry  and  only  slightly  fertile  soils  it 
occasions  its  death.  In  soils  to  which  this  cepage  is  well 
adapted,  phylloxera  has  practically  no  action  on  it.  Vine- 
yards of  seventeen  to  thirty  years  old,  which  were  grafted 
from  thirteen  to  nineteen  years  ago,  are  still  in  existence  in 
the  Herault,  Gironde,  Dordogne,  where  they  still  remain 
fine  and  vigorous.  To  sum  up,  Solonis  has  only  withered 
when  grafted  in  very  calcareous,  very  poor,  or  very  dry 
soils. 

We  consider  it  necessary  to  give  the  distinctive  characters 
of  the  principal  cepages  of  this  group.  The  description  of 
Solonis  will  serve  as  a  term  of  comparison. 

T.  V.  Munson  selected,  amongst  Novo-Mexicana,  many 
interesting  forms  of  great  vigour,  more  resistant  than  Solonis 
and  of  perhaps  equal  resistance  to  chlorosis.  The  two  prin- 
cipal are  the  Novo-Mexicana  Hutchison  and  the  Novo-Mexi- 
cana Mobeetie.  The  Hutchison  has  great  analogy  to  the 
Solonis,  but  is  more  vigorous ;  the  Mobeetie  has  characters 
approaching  closer  to  Rupestris  than  any  other  form  of  this 
group.  The  Novo-Mexicana  forms  D,  Microsperma,  No.  43 
and  C,  No.  $6,  and  Solonis  Microsperma^  are  of  much  inferior 
vigour  to  the  other  three  forms.  We  will  mention  also  in  this 
group  a  form  which  seems  to  be  rather  a  hybrid  of  Riparia 
X  Candicans  than  a  Riparia  X  Rupestris  X  Candicans,  a 
form  which  T.  V.  Munson  considered  to  be  a  species,  the 
Doaniana. 

The   following  is  the  comparative  scale  of   resistance  and 


CEPAGES. 


153 


vigour  of  these  forms,  studied  in  a  collection  planted  in 
clayey-calcareous  soil  at  the  School  of  Agriculture,  Mont- 
pellier,  the  vines  being  of  the  same  age : — 


Solonis 

Solonis  with  lobed  leaves 

Hutchison 

Mobeetie 

Doaniana 


Vigour. 
18 
19 
20 
17 
12 


Resistance. 

14 
,      13 

15 

16 

12 


Solonis. — Stump  vigorous,  habit  spreading,  trunk  strong. 
Canes  long  cylindrical,  with  patches  of  whitish  hair,  light- 
brownish  grey  when  lignified.  Leaves  (Fig.  78)  medium, 


Fig.  78.— Leaf  of  Solonis. 

entire,  teeth  acute,  in  two  series ;  the  longer  ones  indicating 
the  lobes ;  those  of  the  two  inferior  lobes  converging  towards 
the  axis  of  the  leaf,  which  is  folded  along  the  mid-rib,  the 


154  AMERICAN    VINES. 

extremity  of  the  terminal  lobe  curved  underneath;  petiolar 
sinus  shallow,  widely  open ;  limb  glabrous  on  both  faces, 
stiff  whitish  hair  on  the  veins  of  the  under-face,  disseminated 
patches  of  fluffy  hair  on  the  petiole  and  the  veins  of  the 
upper-face,  upper-face  glaucous  green,  under-face  paler  green. 
The  Solonis  with  lobed  leaves  differs  in  its  three  lobed  limb, 
and  less  acute  teeth ;  it  is  not  superior  in  .vigour  or  facility 
of  adaptation,  to  the  true  Solonis  type,  and  its  resistance  is 
less.  We  will  also  quote,  according  to  Vermorel,  the  Solonis 
Feytel  which  is  not  of  greater  value  than  the  Solonis. 

Hutchison. — Stump  very  vigorous,  trunk  very  strong. 
Canes  straight,  medium  size,  grey-cinnamon  colour;  young 
shoots  purple  rose  colour,  covered  with  a  white  woolly  to- 
mentum  extending  on  to  the  petioles,  tendrils,  and  upper- 
face  of  young  leaves.  Adult  leaves,  thick,  longer  than  wide, 
slightly  folded  along  the  mid-rib,  teeth  acuminate,  in  two 
series  like  the  Solonis,  but  the  curve  being  less  pronounced 
at  the  summit  of  the  lobes ;  upper- face  greyish-lustrous 
green  with  a  few  patches  of  araneous  hair;  under-face  light 
lustrous  green,  with  prominent  ribs ;  petiolar  sinus  widely 
open,  V  shape. 

Mobeetie. — Stump  vigorous ;  canes  long,  straight,  cylind- 
rical, dull  cinnamon-red  colour,  with  well  defined  fluting. 
Leaves  (Fig.  79)  large,  orbicular,  as  long  as  wide,  entire,  the 
terminal  lobe  longer,  slightly  folded  along  the  mid-rib,  fairly 
thick;  upper- face  glaucous  green,  lustrous,  with  disseminated 
patches  of  araneous  hair;  under-face  lighter  green,  lustrous, 
with  numerous  stiff  hairs  on  principal  and  secondary  veins; 
petiole  long  and  slender,  with  patches  of  white  araneous 
hair ;  petiolar  sinus  deep,  open  U  shape. 

Doaniana. — T.  V.  Munson  discovered  and  named  the 
Doaniana,  in  1887,  in  the  north  of  Texas  (Panhandle),  where 
this  vine  grows  mixed  with  Candicans  hybrids,  especially 
Novo-Mexicana.  As  he  found  this  vine  growing  over  a  con- 
siderable area  and  with  constant  characters,  he  thought  it 
constituted  a  species,  which  he  named  V.  Doaniana. 

The  various  forms  of  Doaniana  have,  it  is  true,  very 
peculiar  and  definite  characteristics,  the  habit,  for  instance, 
and  the  character  of  the  leaves  recall  certain  French  cepages. 
When  the  ampelographic  characters  of  the  Doanianas  have 
been  carefully  studied  in  detail,  one  cannot  doubt  any  longer 
of  their  hybrid  nature ;  their  relationship  with  Mustang  is 
^very  positive  in  the  characters  of  the  fruit,  the  seed  and  the 


1 


CEPAGES. 


155- 


tomentum  of  the  leaves  (Fig.  80)  ;  the  form  which  T.  V. 
Munson  named  Later  Doaniana  is  very  close  to  Mustang. 
The  leaves  of  this  form  and  of  another  varietv,  the  most 


Fig.  79. — Leaf  of  Novo-Mexicana  (Mobeetie). 

characteristic  and  most  common,  selected  by  T.  V.  Munson,. 
and  named  by  him  Early  Doaniana,  resemble  certain 
vigorous  forms  of  Novo-Mexicana  so  closely  that  they  are 
readily  confused;  finally,  the  erect  habit  of  the  Early 
Doaniana  seems  to  indicate  an  effect  of  the  Rupestris. 
Munson  expected  a  future  for  these  hybrids  as  direct  pro- 
ducers and  graft-bearers.  Their  fructification  is  not  abundant, 
and  the  characters  of  the  Mustang  are  too  pronounced  in  the 


156 


AMERICAN    VINES. 


Fig.  80. — Leaf  of  Doaniana. 

fruit  for  them  to  have  any  value  in  Europe.  As  graft-bearers 
they  are  without  interest. 

The  Early  Doaniana  is  much  less  vigorous  than  any  other 
forms  of  Novo-Mexicana,  its  resistance  to  phylloxera,  when 
three  years  old,  is  only  12.  It  roots  freely  from  cuttings. 

The  Early  Doaniana  has  an  erect  habit,  like  the  Espar 
(Mataro),  for  instance;  canes  short  or  medium,  cylindrical, 
rugose,  dull,  deep-hazel  colour;  internodes  short,  nodes 
prominent;  young  shoots  light  pink  with  abundant  araneous 
tomentum  on  the  summits.  Leaves  rather  small,  almost 
entire,  symmetrical,  pentagonal,  elongated ;  terminal  lobes 
well  detached,  triangular,  elongated ;  limb  -very  deeply  and 


f  CEP  AGES.  157 

regularly  goffered  along  the  secondary  and  ternary  veins; 
teeth  in  one  series,  wide,  indentations  shallow  and  obtuse ; 
petiolar  sinus  deep,  slightly  open ;  upper-face  light  lustrous 
green,  with  disseminated  patches  of  araneous  hair ;  under- 
face  duller  green,  with  well-defined  veins  covered  with  a 
number  of  stiff  brush-like  hairs. 

The  Late  Doaniana  differs  from  the  above  form  by  its  very 
marked  Mustang  characters;  it  has  fluffy  tomentum  even 
on  the  lignified  canes.  Leaves  often  tri-lobed,  -vaguely 
goffered,  with  margins  sometimes  curved  underneath,  under- 
face  regularly  covered  with  numerous  short  araneous  hairs ; 
teeth  wide,  well  defined. 

Munson  found  a  hybrid  in  the  wild  state,  on  the  banks  of 
the  Red  River,  which  he  considered  to  be  a  Cinerea  X  Novo- 
Mc.vicana,  bearing  many  points  of  resemblance  to  Doaniana ; 
according  to  him,  it  has  a  large  and  very  vigorous  trunk; 
its  leaves  recalling  those  of  Novo-Mexicana,  but  being  less 
thick  and  more  tomentose.  This  hybrid  has  not  been  intro- 
duced or  experimented  upon  in  France.  Finally,  amongst 
other  hybrids  of  this  group,  we  mention  Solonis  X  Riparia 
No.  1616  and  16/5,  of  Couderc;  having  a  resistance  to 
chlorosis  equalling  that  of  Solonis,  and,  according  to  Couderc, 
having  a  greater  resistance  to  phylloxera;  the  1615  is  the 
most  vigorous. 

Hybrids  of  V.  Candicans  and  V  >Estivalis; — of 
V.  Candicans  and  V.  Cordifolia; — of  V.  Candicans  and 
V.  Cinerea. — The  ^stivalis  X  Candicans  are  scarce; 
Millardet  only  mentions  one  form.  The  Cordifolia 
X  Candicans  and  Cinerea  X  Candicans  are  rather 
numerous,  in  the  wild  state,  in  the  north  of  Texas ; 
they  are  generally  vigorous  in  the  rich  alluvials  of 
river  banks;  they  have  not  been  introduced  or  experimented 
upon  in  France.  Their  procreators  may  have  transmitted 
to  them  a  great  difficulty  of  rooting  from  cuttings,  and 
a  feeble,  resistance  to  chlorosis;  but  have  endowed  them 
with  a  large  trunk  and  great  vigour;  their  resistance  to 
phylloxera  may  be  small,  as  is  the  case  in  all  other  hybrids 
of  V.  Candicans.  The  Cordifolia  X  Candicans  would  offer  a 
greater  guarantee  of  resistance. 

Hybrids  of  V.  Lincecumii  and  V.  XEstivalis: — of 
V.  Lincecumii  and  V.  Candicans; — of  V  Lincecumii 
and  V.  Cinerea; — of  V.  Lincecumii  and  V.  Cordifolia. 
— These  various  groups  of  hybrids  are  very  numerous, 


158  AMERICAN    VINES. 

in  the  wild  state,  in  all  the  regions  where  the 
V.  Lincecumii  grows  mixed  with  these  other  species 
(Missouri,  Indian  Territory,  Arkansas,  and  north  of 
Texas)  ;  they  are  of  no  interest,  for  they  are  generally 
very  difficult  to  propagate  from  cuttings  and  only  grow  well 
in  siliceous,  fertile  soils.  The  Cordifolia  X  Lincecumii  are 
the  most  vigorous.  T.  V.  Munson  isolated  two  forms  of  these 
hybrids  which  he  named  Black  Jack  and  Ninon,  they  are 
rather  fructiferous,  but  of  no  value  for  our  vineyards. 

Hybrids  of  V.  Lincecumii  and  V.  Rupestris. — Fre- 
quently met  with  in  the  south-west  of  Missouri,  where  H.  Jaeger 
studied  them  carefully.  He  also  created  a  very  great  number 
of  forms,  with  the  object  of  obtaining  direct  producers  resist- 
ant to  black  rot  and  mildew ;  his  numbers  43,  70,  and  72  are 
the  most  interesting,  but  the  wines  they  produce  are  too 
inferior  in  quality  and -quantity  to  interest  us;  they  always 
retain  the  harsh  taste  characteristic  of  the  Lincecumii  grape. 
Most  of  the  -vigorous  forms  of  these  hybrids  are  difficult  to 
propagate  from  cuttings,  and  are  inferior  to  the  fine  Rupes- 
tris varieties,  even  as  far  as  vigour  is  concerned ;  they  seem 
to  thrive  well  only  in  soils  where  the  latter  also  grows 
well.  However,  the  V.  Lincecumii  is  a  species  with  large 
trunk,  great  development,  and  some  wild  or  artificial  Lince- 
cumii and  Rupestris  hybrids  might  be  of  value  in  Rupestris 
soils. 

Hybrids  of  V.  Bicolor  and  V.  Riparia. — Munson  is  the 
only  one  who  has  observed  this  hybrid  in  Canada.  It  is  a 
tomentose  Riparia,  with  leaves  bluish  on  the  under-face, 
similar  to  V.  Bicolor,  and  has  only  an  interest  as  a  curiosity. 
The  same  applies  to  the  2Estwalis  X  Bicolor,  which  are 
numerous  in  Pennsylvania  arid  Ohio,  and  have  no  cultural 
value  on  account  of  their  poor  vigour. 

Hybrids  of  V.   >£stivalis  and  V.   Cordifolia  — One  of 

these  hybrids  was  first  discovered  by  J.  E.  Planchon ;  they  are 
very  numerous  in  the  centre  and  extreme  south  of  the  United 
States,  and  are  only  slightly  vigorous,  contrary  to  what 
would  have  been  supposed,  on  account  of  the  influence  of 
V.  Cordifolia.  They  have  the  general  characteristics  of  the 
small-leaved  variety  of  V.  Cordifolia,  with  patches  of  araneous 
rusty-coloured  hair  on  the  veins.  These  hybrids  have  not 
been  tried  in  France ;  we  may  infer  from  the  properties  of 
their  procreators  that  they  have  only  a  feeble  resistance  to 


/  CEPAGES.  159 

•chlorosis.  For  dry  or  rich  siliceous  soils  they  would  be 
inferior  to  other  graft-bearers  on  account  of  their  small 
vigour. 

Hybrids  of  V.  XEstivalis  and  V.  Cinerea. — The  wild 
forms  are  rare.  Millardet  and  de  Grasset  isolated  one  of  them 
in  1882,  and  Munson  found  one  in  Georgia.  These  vines  are 
generally  of  little  vigour;  their  value  of  resistance  and  adap- 
tation is  not  known,  but  we  may  assume  that  they  are  not 
meritorious. 

Hybrids  of  V.  /Estivalis  and  V.  Rupestris. — Exist  in 
a  wild  state  in  the  south  of  Missouri  and  Indian  Territory. 
They  generally  have  a  strong  trunk  and  great  vigour,  but 
only  grow  in  dry  siliceous  soils,  the  soils  for  Rupestris.  The 
forms  tried  in  France,  amongst  others,  the  Rupestris  Taylor 
and  Rupestris  de  Lezignan,  grow  vigorously  in  Rupestris 
soils,  and  in  good  garrigues  soils  of  the  south  of  France;  in 
calcareous  and  chalky  marly  soils  they  become  stunted  after 
the  first  year's  planting  out.  They  are  not  suitable  varieties 
for  chalky  soils,  but  they  make  -very  good  graft-bearers,  and 
are  vigorous  in  all  soils  where  the  Rupestris  could  be  culti- 
vated, especially  in  pebbly-siliceous,  poor  and  compact  soils. 
Millardet  and  de  Grasset  have  selected  a  few  Rupestris  and 
Estivalis,  which  become  yellow  in  cretaceous  chalks  like  the 
wild  forms. 

Rupestris  Taylor. — Form  isolated  at  Mas  de  las  Sorres; 
not  much  affected  by  phylloxera.  Stump  very  vigorous, 
trunk  strong,  habit  exclusively  spreading.  Canes  sinuous, 
strong,  deep-chestnut  colour,  nodes  covered  with  vinous- 
coloured  bloom.  Leaves  large,  wider  than  long,  orbicular, 
thick,  fleshy,  goffered  structure,  deep  green,  slightly  shining 
on  the  upper-face,  light  glaucous  green  and  dull  on  the 
under-face;  ribs  strong,  covered  with  stiff  hair;  petiolar 
sinus  deep,  lyre-shaped.  Seeds  same  character  as  V.  Esti- 
valis. Resistance,  16. 

We  will  also  mention  the  Rupestris  de  Lezignan,  which  is 
a  very  vigorous  hybrid  of  Rupestris  and  Estivalis.  Accord- 
ing to  Millardet,  this  hybrid  selected  by  Marron-Martin  and 
Joulia,  of  Lezignan,  is  distinguishable  from  Rupestris  Taylor 
by  the  character  of  its  wood—"  That  of  Rupestris  Lezignan 
is  round,  while  that  of  Rupestris  Taylor  is  flat,  and  has  very 
marked  flutings  between  the  nodes." 


l6o  AMERICAN    VINES. 

Hybrids  of  V.  >Estivalis  and  V.  Riparia. — The  Riparia 
and  ^stivalis  are  numerous  in  the  United  States,  in  the  centre 
states  bordering  the  Atlantic;  they  have  a  very  great  vigour 
and  a  very  great  development  of  trunk  and  canes,  in  red, 
fertile,  generally  siliceous-  soil.  Although  the  wild  forms 
have  not  yet  been  tried  in  France,  it  is  to  be  presumed  that 
on  account  of  their  origin  they  are  not  resistant  to  chlorosis. 
They  would,  however,  the  most  vigorous  forms  exclusively, 
make  excellent  graft-bearers  for  Riparia  soils  on  account  of 
the  size  of  their  trunk. 

Azenwr  Hybrid. — Millardet  has  named  and  made  known 
a  hybrid  of  ^Estivalis  X  Riparia,  which  was  accidently  ob- 
tained from  seeds  of  ^Estivalis,  sown  in  1879,  by  Azemar  of 
Perpignan.  According  to  Millardet,  it  is  a  very  vigorous 
vine,  with  large  trunk,  rooting  freely  from  cuttings,  and 
knitting  well  with  almost  all  European  varieties  without 
forming  any  pronounced  pad  of  knitting  tissue ;  and  further, 
it  is  very  resistant  to  phylloxera.  In  the  chalky  soils  of 
Cognac  it  succumbs  to  chlorosis  and  becomes  stunted  very 
rapidly,  even  before  grafting.  It  is  not,  therefore,  suitable 
for  marly  or  chalky  soils,  but  makes  an  excellent  graft- 
bearer,  superior  to  certain  Riparias ;  in  light  siliceous  or  clay- 
siliceous  soils  it  does  not  equal  in  value  the  most  .vigorous 
forms  of  Riparia.  Millardet  considers  it  a  good  graft-bearer 
for  clayey,  but  not  damp,  soils. 

Here  are  the  general  characters,  according  to  Millardet : — 
"Stump  very  strong;  young  shoots  violet-grey  pubescent; 
canes  with  medium  internodes,  deep-mahogany  colour ;  covered 
with  bloom.  Leaves  large,  cordiform  or  polygonal-sub- 
cordiform,  vaguely  tri-lobed,  slightly  goffered  structure, 
margins  revolute,  terminal  lobe  acute;  teeth  fairly  regular, 
sub-acute.  Upper-face  of  a  fine  deep  green,  with  a  few  cob- 
webby hairs;  under- face  with  a  few  short  hairs  on  the  main 
and  secondary  ribs. 

Hybrids   of  V.    Berlandieri  and  V.   Rupestris.— T.  V. 

Munson  isolated  two  wild  forms  of  these  hybrids  which  were 
imported  into  France  in  1888;  they  are  still  growing  fairly 
vigorously  in  rather  calcareous  soils.  One  of  these  (No.  T) 
is,  we  think,  an  hybrid  of  V.  Berlandieri  X  Candicans ;  its 
vigour  compared  with  the  known  forms  of  Berlandieri  X 
Candicans  may  be  represented  by  19,  but  its  resistance  to 
phylloxera  is  only  12.  The  other  form,  which  is  alone 


CEPAGES.  l6l 

considered  by  us  as  a  Berlandieri  X  Rupestris  (No.  2)  is  rather 
•vigorous  (18)  and  fairly  resistant  (16).  Contrary  to  No.  T, 
it  has  no  white  tomentum  on  the  young  leaves.  The  canes 
are  a  little  more  slender,  the  internodes  longer,  of  a  dull 
vinous-brown  colour.  Leaves  medium,  very  thick,  as  wide 
as  long,  orbicular,  folded  along  the  mid-rib,  slightly  gof- 
fered along  the  main  ribs,  of  a  deep  lustrous  green,  almost 
glabrous  on  the  under-face;  petiolar  sinus  U  shape.  This 
form  roots  freely  from  cuttings,  but  is  inferior,  as  far  as 
vigour  is  concerned,  to  the  artificial  hybrids  of  the  same 
group ;  it  is  therefore  without  cultural  value. 

Millardet,  de  Grasset,  and  Malegue  have  created  several 
artificial  hybrids  of  Rupestris  X  Berlandieri.  They  are 
generally  fairly  vigorous,  and  inherit  from  the  Berlandieri  a 
high  resistance  to  chlorosis.  Their  resistance  to  phylloxera 
is  very  good.  They  are  excellent  graft-bearers,  not  suitable, 
however,  for  strongly  chalky  soils,  but  for  all  those  similar 
to  the  groie  soils  of  the  Charente  and  Bourgogne,  that  is  to 
say,  pebbly.* 

Hybrids  of  V.   Berlandieri   and  V.  Monticola.— In  the 

few  regions  where  the  V.  Monticola  grows  in  Texas,  the  V. 
Berlandieri  is  invariably  associated  with  it;  the  wild  hybrids 
of  these  two  species  are  therefore  rather  numerous.  They  are 
more  vigorous,  in  a  wild  state,  than  most  forms  of  V.  Monti- 
cola,  and  grow  like  them  on  barren  hills  formed  of  fairly 
hard  limestone,  the  V.  Berlandieri  endows  them  with  extra 
vigour.  But  a  rather  constant  fact  observed  for  all  the  forms 
introduced  into  France  up  to  1894  is  that  their  resistance  to 
phylloxera  is  less  than  that  of  either  of  the  two  species  they  are 
derived  from.  Amongst  the  eight  forms  introduced  at  the 
School  of  Agriculture,  Montpellier,  the  most  vigorous  (No.  i) 
has  a  resistance  of  14,  like  the  Solonis ;  the  No.  6  has  the  same 
resistance,  but  is  inferior  to  Solonis  in  vigour ;  finally,  the  No.  8 
died  from  phylloxera.  A  curious  fact,  corrobating  what  has 
been  said  in  the  first  part  of  this  work,  takes  place  with  this 
form,  i.  e.,  the  weakening  due  to  phylloxera  manifesting  itself 
externally,  without  the  leaves  becoming  chlorosed,  although 
the  vine  is  growing  in  calcareous  soils.  The  origin  of  this 
hybrid  explains  this  relative  resistance  to  chlorosis  even  under 
the  action  of  phylloxera. 

*  Amonerst  the  best  forms  we  may  mention  the  Rupestris  X  Berlandieri,  Millardet 
No  SOIA  and  No.aiof,  as  bsmg  very  '  vigorous  and  very  resistant  to  chlorosis, 
and  phylloxera.  (P.  V.  1900.)! 


162 


AMERICAN    VINES. 


The  most  vigorous  and  resistant  hybrids  of  Berlandieri  X 
Monticola,  may  have  a  certain  value  for  moderately  calcareous 
soils  (Jurassic,  and  groie  soils)  ;  but  this  value  can  only  be 
assumed,  for  they  have  not  yet  been  sufficiently  experimented 
with  in  those  soils.  Certain  forms  of  very  fine  vigour  were 
introduced  in  1895  into  our  collections. 

Hybrids  of  V.  Berlandieri  and  V.  Cordifolia;— of  V. 
Berlandieri  and  V.  Cinerea; — of  V.  Berlandieri  and  V. 

Lincecumii.  — A  few  rare  hybrids  of  V.  Berlandieri  and  V. 
Cordifolia  were  indicated  as  existing,  in  a  wild  state,  in 
America,  and  were  introduced  into  France  as  pure  Berlandieris. 
They  possess  a  certain  resistance  to  chlorosis,  but  -very  inferior 
to  that  of  pure  Berlandieri,  and  are  recognisable  by  their  very 
varnished-like  leaves,  with  regular  and  well-defined  teeth. 
In  the  numerous  consignments  of  Berlandieri  made  in  latter 
years,  many  hybrids  ofs  Berlandieri  and  Cinerea  have  been 
introduced,  easily  distinguishable  by  their  leaves,  which 
are  cordiform,  elongated,  finely  goffered  in  structure,  of  a 
deep  dull  green  on  both  faces,  with  numerous  short  greyish 
hair  on  the  ribs  of  the  under-face,  and  by  their  fluted  canes. 
Certain  individual  forms  have  a  very  great  vigour,  but  are 
far  inferior  to  Berlandieri  for  chalky  soils ;  they  seem,  how- 
ever, to  have  a  certain  value  for  very  compact  and  damp 
clayey-calcareous  soils ;  they  root  from  cuttings  more  freely 
than  Berlandieri.  A  few  hybrids  of  Berlandieri  and  Cinerea 
have  been  created  by  Millardet  and  de  Grasset,  and  by  Cou- 
derc;  they  root  badly  from  cuttings,  and  are  much  affected 
by  chlorosis.  Hybrids  of  Berlandieri  and  Lincecumii  also 
exist  in  a  wild  state,  but  have  not  been  introduced  into 
Europe. 

Hybrids    of    V.    Berlandieri    and    V.     Riparia. — The 

hybrids  of  Riparia  and  Berlandieri  seem  a  priori,  on  account 
of  their  procreators,  to  have  real  value  for  calcareous  and 
chalky  soils.  The  Riparia  is  vigorous,  slightly  resistant  to 
chlorosis,  and  very  resistant  to  phylloxera;  it  roots  very  freely 
from  cuttings,  and  when  grafted  the  grafts  are  very  produc- 
tive. The  Berlandieri  shares  these  qualities,  but  to  a  -very 
much  higher  degree,  especially  as  far  as  productivity  and  re- 
sistance to  chlorosis  are  concerned,  but  normally  it  does  not 
root  from  cuttings.  It  would  seem  that  by  uniting  it  to 
Riparia  one  might  endow  the  offspring  with  the  properties 
of  rooting  freely,  while  maintaining  the  essential  qualities  of 


CEPAGES.  163 

resistance  to  chlorosis  in  chalky  soils.  The  experiments 
made  at  the  Viticultural  Station  at  Cognac  confirm  these 
anticipations.  The  hybrids  of  Riparia  and  Berlandieri  root 
from  cuttings  almost  as  well  as  the  Riparias  themselves,  and 
their  resistance  to  chlorosis,  without,  perhaps,  being  as  high 
as  that  of  pure  Berlandieris,  is  very  greatly  superior  in  any 
case  to  that  of  V.  Vinifera  or  V.  Rupestris.  Assuming  that 
Berlandieris  were  not  practically  utilizable  on  account  of  the 
difficulty  of  their  propagation  (which  is  not  so),  and  that  the 
Franco-Americans  remain  without  value  on  account  of  their 
doubtful  resistance  to  phylloxera  (which  might  be),  it  is  cer- 
tainly the  hybrids  between  Riparia  and  Berlandieri  which 
would,  we  consider,  be  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  recon- 
stitution  of  vineyards  in  many  chalky  soils.  We  also  think- 
that  Berlandieri  X  Riparia  are  destined  to  a  great  future 
for  many  soils  where  the  Riparia,  without  getting  stunted, 
becomes  chlorosed,  and  gives  comparatively  small  yields,  and 
where  Solonis  and  Rupestris  du  Lot  are  not  sufficiently  re- 
sistant to  chlorosis. 

Millardet  and  de  Grasset,  Couderc,  Malegue  have  already 
artificially  created  many  of  these  hybrids  which  are  certainly 
promising. 

At  the  School  of  Agriculture,  Montpellier,  sowings  made 
in  1890  with  seeds  gathered  from  Berlandieris  originating 
from  the  calcareous  and  chalky  soils  of  the  extreme  north 
of  Texas  have  given  us  forms  of  Berlandieri,  and  very  dis- 
tinct forms  of  hybrids  between  Riparia  and  Berlandieri. 
Amongst  the  latter  we  selected  two  forms,  one  glabrous 
(No.  33)  the  other  tomentose  (No.  34),  of  very  great  vigour, 
resistant  to  phylloxera,  and  rooting  freely.  We  cannot  yet 
fix  their  real  value  in  respect  to  resistance  to  chlorosis  in 
chalky  soils ;  this  resistance,  however,  seems  probable,  and  the 
trials  now  being  made  in  the  chalky  soils  of  Champagne  and 
Cognac  will  shortly  settle  this  definitely* ;  meanwhile,  here 
are  the  principal  characters  of  the  two  forms: — 

Berlandieri  X  Riparia  No.  jj  E cole. —Stump  strong  and 
vigorous,  spreading  habit;  canes  straight,  cylindrical/  thick 
and  strong,  little  ramified,  internodes  rather  short,  ribs 
vaguely  indicated  and  deeper  in  colour  on  the  lignified  canes, 

*  Since  this  second  edition  appeared  (i8g6>  the  Riparias  X  Berlandieris  have 
proved  to  be  of  great  value  all  through  France  for  calcareous  soils  containing 
less  than  15  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime;  these  stocks  are  actually  in  great 
use,  specially  the  34?Ecole,  420A  Millardet  and  157-11  Couderc.  (P.  V.  1900.) 


i64 


AMERICAN    VINES. 


Fig.  81. — Leaf  of  Berlandieri  X  Riparia,  No.  33  Ecole. 

which  are  of  a  light  fawn-brown  colour;  young  shoots 
glabrous  yellowish-green,  pinkish  along  the  ribs.  Leaves 
(Fig.  81)  medium,  entire,  terminal  lobe,  long  and  acute, 
cordiform,  very  thick;  principal  ribs  strong,  with  a  few 
disseminated  patches  of  hair;  upper- face  deep  lustrous- 
green,  goffered  structure  between  the  ribs ;  under-face  var- 
nished appearance,  light  green;  petiolar  sinus  deep  V  shape, 
with  a  few  hairs  on  the  edges ;  indentations  shallow,  teeth 
in  two  regular  series ;  the  petiole  prolonged  *a  a  line  with 
the  mid-rib. 

Berlandieri  X  Riparfa  No.  34  Ecole.  —  Stump  vigorous, 
trunk  strong ;  canes  cylindrical,  wide  striations,  with  well 
marked  ribs  on  shoots  of  medium  size,  deeper  in  colour  at 


Fig.  82. — Leaf  of  Berlandieri  X  Riparia,  No.  34  Ecole. 

complete  lignification,  internodes  medium ;  young  shoots 
tomentose,  covered  with  very  numerous  short  hairs  over  the 
whole  surface,  hair  extending  to  the  tendrils  and  petioles,  of 
a  vinous  fawn-brown  at  lignification.  Leaves,  adult  (Fig. 
82),  large,  very  thick,  sub-orbicular,  entire,  terminal  lobe 
fairly  well  defined  and  curving  underneath,  margins  revolute ; 
upper-face  deep  green,  as  if  varnished ;  under- face  lighter 
and  duller  in  colour ;  main  and  secondary  ribs  covered  with 
short  regular  brush-like  hairs;  teeth  in  two  series,  scarcely 
defined ;  petiolar  sinus  V  shape,  widely  open,  fairly  deep. 

Hybrids    of    V.    Cordifolia    and    V.    Cinerea. — These 
hybrids  are  common  in  the  south-west  of  Missouri,  and  on 


l66  AMERICAN    VINES. 

the  banks  of  the  Red  River,  in  Indian  Territory  and  Texas. 
They  are  vigorous,  but  generally  less  so  than  the  species 
they  are  derived  from.  They  have  not  been  tried  in  France, 
and  even  if  they  preserved,  from  the  point  of  view  of  adapta- 
tion, the  qualities  of  their  procreators,  they  could  not  possess 
their  value  for  poor  lands. 

Millardet  has  indicated  a  hybrid  of  V.  Cordifolia  and  V. 
Rubra,  which  is,  however,  of  no  cultural  interest. 

Hybrids     of     V.      Cordifolia     and     V.      Rupestris.— 

These  were  propagated  for  the  first  time  in  France,  in  1880, 
by  de  Grasset.  Millardet  advocated  them  in  1882,  in  the  hope 
that  they  would  prove  excellent  graft-bearers  for  bad  soils. 
H.  Jaeger,  who  discovered  them  in  the  United  States, 
differentiated  80  forms  in  Missouri,  Indian  Territory,  and 
Arkansas,  where  the  Rupestris  and  Cordifolia  grow  together. 

The  Cordifolia  X  Rupestris  grow  in  the  same  soils  and 
situations  as  the  Rupestris,  consequently  in  non-calcareous 
soils,  and  in  the  more  fertile  parts  of  the  Rupestris  regions. 
In  such  soils  the  Cordifolia  X  Rupestris  have  a  great  vigour 
and  large  trunk.  One  of  the  best  forms  studied  by  Millardet, 
the  Cordifolia  X  Rupestris  de  Grasset  No.  i,  roots  well  from 
cuttings,  and  bears  very  fructiferous  and  very  vigorous 
grafts;  the  trunk  is  very  strong,  and  its  resistance  to 
phylloxera  is  18. 

In  calcareous  chalky  soils,  in  yellow  marls,  the  Cordi- 
folia X  Rupestris  rapidly  becomes  stunted,  and  dies  from 
chlorosis  the  first  or  second  year  after  planting  out,  with- 
out being  grafted.  These  -vines,  on  account  of  the  size 
of  their  trunk,  of  their  resistance,  and  their  vigour,  might 
be  cultivated  in  rich  Rupestris  soils,  or  in  deep  friable 
Riparia  soils;  but  nothing  has  yet  shown  that  the  Cordifolia 
X  Rupestris  are  superior  to  these  two  species  in  such  soils. 
They  must,  in  any  case,  be  excluded  from  all  soils  where  soft 
limestone  predominates. 

Among  the  Cordifolia  X  Rupestris  selected  by  Millardet 
and  de  Grasset,  the  No.  i  is  the  most  vigorous ;  amongst 
those  isolated  by  Jseger  the  most  meritorious  are  the  numbers 
i,  4,  and  5. 

Hybrids  of  V.  Cordifolia  and  V.  Riparia. — We  have 
already  said  that  the  forms  of  Riparia  with  thick  lustrous 
leaves  might  be  considered  as  hybrids  of  Riparia  and 
Cordifolia.  Well  characterized  hvbrids  of  this  nature 


CEP  AGES.  167 

i 

are  frequent  in  the  centre  of  the  United  States;  they  are 
generally  very  vigorous,  and  live  in  the  same  soils  as  the 
Riparias,  from  which  they  get  their  properties  of  adapta- 
tion and  resistance.  Millardet  and  de  Grasset  created  many 
hybrids  of  this  nature. 

H/brids  of  V.  Cinerea  and  V.  Coriacea — The  varied 
fprms  of  vines,  to  which  Munson  gave  the  name  of  V.  Simpsoni, 
and  which  he  found  in  the  south-west  of  Florida,  are  only 
hybrids  of  Cinerea  and  Coriacea.  These  vines,  like  the  V. 
Munsoniana,  do  not  offer  any  cultural  interest  for  us,  on 
account  of  their  originating  in  a  tropical  country;  they  were 
introduced  into  France  in  1888;  they  grow  badly  in  slightly 
calcareous  soils,  without,  however,  becoming  yellow. 

T.  V.  Munson  discovered  a  wild  hybrid  of  Simpsoni  and 
Labrusca,  the  Wofford's  Winter  Grape,  which  grows  in 
Georgia,  together  with  a  hybrid  Simpsoni  X  Cordifolia 
growing  in  Florida.  These  forms  are  of  no  more  interest 
than  the  Simpsoni  itself.  The  same  may  be  said  of  a  few 
hybrids  of  Cordifolia  X  Coriacea  and  ^Estivalis  X  Coriacea 
observed  in  Florida. 

Hybrids  of  V.  Cinerea  and  V,  Riparia. — They  are  not 
frequent  in  a  wild  state,  and  were  imported  into  France  as 
Riparias.  Some  are  very  vigorous,  and  have  a  larger  trunk 
than  that  of  Riparia,  from  which  they  are  distinguished  by 
their  leaves  being  thicker  and  by  the  very  numerous  short 
hairs  on  the  main  and  secondary  ribs  of  the  under- face ;  in 
some  forms  the  canes  are  fluted.  They  have  not  been  seri- 
ously studied  from  the  point  of  view  of  adaptation.  They 
must  be  very  sensitive  to  chlorosis,  if  the  characters  of 
their  parent  have  been  transmitted ;  but  may,  perhaps,  have 
some  value  for  damp  and  compact  soils. 

Hybrids  of  V.  Monticola  and  V.  Rupestris.— No 
hybrids  of  this  nature  have  yet  been  observed  in  a  wild  state ; 
they  might,  perhaps,  exist,  but  would  certainly  be  exceptional, 
for  the  two  species  do  not  generally  grow  in  the  same  regions 
or  in  similar  soils.  It  has  been  wrongly  surmised  that  certain 
vigorous  forms  of  Rupestris,  with  light  lustrous  small  leaves, 
were  hybrids  of  Monticola  and  Rupestris ;  this  opinion  is  only 
founded  on  hypothesis,  especially  as  far  as  Rupestris  du  Lot 
is  concerned.  *  sjpt. , 

Hybrids  of  V.  Monticola  and  V  Riparia. — These 
hybrids  are  still  very  little  known.  It  is  probable  that  their 


i68 


AMERICAN    VINES. 


Fig.  83. — Leaf  of  Colorado.  ;  j  jj  $ 

resistance  to  phylloxera  on  the  whole  is  good,  and  that  their 
resistance  to  chlorosis  is  superior  to  that  of  Riparia.  This  is 
so,  however,  for  the  natural  hybrid  of  these  two  species,  which 
is  known  under  the  name  of  Colorado.  There  are 
many  Color  ados.  Many  have  no  doubt  no  relationship  with 
Monticola.  It  is  not  so  with  that  shown  in  Fig.  83.  The  leaf 
has  most  of  the  characters  of  V.  Monticola.  This  vine  has 
a  resistance  to  chlorosis  superior  to  that  of  Riparia  or 
Riparia  X  Rupestris.  It  only  bears  a  few  more  nodosities 
than  the  Riparia  Grand  Glabre.  It  can,  therefore,  be  utilized 
for  soils  causing  chlorosis  of  medium  intensity.  It  roots  freely 
from  cuttings,  and  the  grafts  knit  well.* 

*  The  few  forms  of  Riparia  X  Monticola  created  in  France  did  not  give  the 
results  expected  from  them,  and  they  seem  very  inferior  to  Berlandieri  X  Rupes- 
tris for  dry  ani  calcareous  soils  where  they  could  be  made  use  of.  f  (P.  V.  ipoo/ 


CEPAGES. 


109 


Pig.  84. — Leaf  of  Riparia  X  Rupestris,  Nos.  101    14,  Millardet  and  de  Grasset. 

Hybrids  of  V.  Cinerea  and  V.  Rupestris. — Rare  in  a 
wild  state;  only  found  in  the  Indian  Territory  and  north  of 
Texas.  They  grow  in  the  same  soils  as  the  Rupestris,  and,  on 
account  of  their  specific  origin,  it  was  to  be  assumed  that  they 
would  be  affected  by  limestone  soils;  this  actually  occurred  in 
the  chalky  soils  of  Cognac.  In  a  wild  state  the  Cinerea  X 
Rupestris  have  rather  great  vigour,  although  inferior  to  that 
of  Cordifolia  X  Rupestris ;  they  grow,  however,  in  drier  and 
poorer  soils  than  the  latter.  One  of  the  forms  isolated  by 
Munson  has  a  resistance  to  phylloxera  equal  to  17.  H.  Jsegar 
created  two  very  vigorous  hybrids  of  Cinerea  X  Rupestris. 
They  do  not  succeed  in  chalky  calcareous  soils,  and  seem  to 
be  inferior  to  Rupestris  in  all  soils  in  which  the  latter  can 
be  cultivated.  Their  rooting  from  cuttings  is  only 
middling. 


I/O  AMERICAN    VINES. 

Hybrids  of  V.  Rupestris  and  V.  Rioaria. — These  were 
discovered  by  H.  Jaeger  in  the  forests  of  the  tribes  of  Senasqua, 
Wyandotte,  Modoc,  Shawnee,  Quapaw,  Paola,  Ottawa,  and 
Miami,  of  Indian  Territory.  The  most  interesting  forms  of 
these  hybrids  have  been  classified ;  they  are  -very  numerous  in 
the  wild  state,  and  over  100  forms  have  been  selected,  some  of 
which  have  real  value. 


Fig.  85. — Leaf  of  Riparia  X  Rupestris,  No.  3306,  Couderc. 

In  America,  the  Riparia  X  Rupestris  grow,  more  especially 
on  the  banks  of  the  Great  River,  in  hard  calcareous  fissured 
rocks,  the  interstices  of  which  are  filled  with  soil  derived  from 
the  plateaux.  They  attain  there  considerable  dimensions, 
sometimes  6  to  8  inches  in  diameter.  In  general  they  are 
more  vigorous  than  their  progenitors,  they  rapidly  increase 
in  diameter  and  the  canes  become  longer  and  stouter,  and, 
moreover,  accommodate  themselves  to  poorer  soils  than 


CEPAGES. 


171 


Fig.|86. — Leaf  of   Riparia  X  Rupestris,  No.  3309,  Couderc. 

Riparia  or  Rupestris.  In  calcareous  soils,  where  the  two 
latter  species  became  slightly  yellow,  some  of  their  hybrids 
remain  green  and  vigorous  when  grafted  and  their  grafts 
are  very  fructiferous.  In  the  chalky  soils  of  the  Char- 
entes  they  die,  but  not  so  rapidly  as  the  species  they  are 
derived  from ;  in  certain  groie  soils,  not  too  calcareous,  certain 
forms  resist  chlorosis  effectually.  In  many  viticultural 
regions  certain  Riparia  X  Rupestris  assume  a  vigorous 


172  AMERICAN    VINES. 

development  when  planted  in  the  place  of  Riparias  or  Ruper- 
tris  which  had  died  from  chlorosis.  These  hybrids  have, 
therefore,  a  greater  geographical  area  of  adaptation  than 
their  procreators,  being  also  more  -vigorous  and  possessing 
the  same  resistance  to  phylloxera;  they,  therefore,  constitute 
remarkable  graft-bearers. 

In  France,  many  hybrids  of  Riparia  and  Rupestris  have 
been  obtained  artificially.  They  have  the  same  properties 
as  the  wild  hybrids,  similar  resistance  to  phylloxera  (18), 
similar  facilities  of  adaptation.  Moreover,  as  they  have  been 
well  selected,  and  cultivated  for  a  very  long  time  in  presence 
of  phylloxera  in  very  diverse  soils,  they  may  now  be  used 
without  fear  as  graft-bearers.  Amongst  them  we  will  men- 
tion Nos.  101-14  of  Millardet  and  de  Grasset  (Fig.  84), 
Nos.  3309  and  3306  of  Couderc  (Figs.  85  and  86),  which 
remain  green  when  grafted,  in  groie  soils  of  the  Charentes 
slightly  liable  to  cause  chlorosis. 

All  the  Riparia  X  Rupestris  are  not  equally  good ;  and 
it  does  not  suffice  for  a  vine  to  be  a  hybrid  of  this  group 
to  possess  the  general  most  important  properties.  Some  of 
those  we  have  cultivated  are  too  deficient  in  vigour  to  render 
any  service,  and  must  be  discarded.  Others  too  closely 
resemble  their  parents,  and  may  have  their  defects  too  strongly 
pronounced ;  the  most  vigorous  varieties  only,  should  there- 
fore be  cultivated,  those  that  have  been  submitted  with 
success  to  the  trial  of  poor  soils.  The  most  meritorious 
forms  are  those  we  have  mentioned  (101-14,  3309,  and 
more  especially  3306)  ;*  and  amongst  the  varieties  selected 
by  Jseger,  the  Riparia  X  Rupestris  Gigantesque,  which,  how- 
ever, is  less  resistant  to  chlorosis  than  the  previous. 

These  vines,  which  give  remarkable  fertility  to  the  grafts 
they  bear,  are  excellent  graft-bearers  for  all  Riparia  soils,  and 
even  for  soils  where  this  vine  suffers  slightly  from  chlorosis. 

'C. HYBRIDS    OF   V.    VINIFERA. 

(Franco- Americans.)  ** 

The  hybrids  created  by  the  union  of  European  varieties 
with  different  American  species  are  very  numerous  and  are 
increasing  in  number  every  year.  The  complexity  in  the 
union  of  pure  forms  already  hybridized  by  crossing  of  one 

*  These  hybrids  are  found  to-day  in    California   nurseries  and   Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Stations. 

**  Or  Vinifera  X  Americans.  (Trans  ) 


-  t  CEPAGES.  173 

or  more  species,  renders  their  study  extremely  difficult ;  we 
will,  however,  endeavor  to  indicate  and  study  most  of  the 
groups  created  by  simple  or  complex  hybridization.  The 
hybrids  of  V.  Vinifera  and  American  Vitis  have,  from  the 
points  of  view  of  their  affinity  and  adaptation,  unquestion- 
able qualities  rendering  them  generally  superior  to  the 
pure  American  vines  which  contributed  to  their  formation. 
They  would,  therefore,  from  this  point  of  view  have  great 
merit. 

Unfortunately,  the  property  of  resistance  to  phylloxera 
seems  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  fix  in  these  hybrids,  if 
we  judge  from  the  results  obtained  so  far.  Hybrids,  such  as 
No  1 60  of  Millardet  and  de  Grasset  (Gros  Colman  X  Rupes- 
tris),  No.  5OA  (Riparia  X  Rupestris  X  unknown  cepage), 
Gamay-Couderc  (3103,  Colombeau  X  Rupestris  of  Couderc), 
N°-  333  Ecole  (Cabernet  X  Berlanderi),  etc.,  which  were 
thought  to  possess  a  very  high  resistance  to  phylloxera,  have 
ended  by  succumbing  to  attacks  of  the  insects  in  soils 
favorable  to  their  development. 

We  may,  therefore,  wonder  whether  other  hybrids  of  V. 
Vinifera,  upon  which  great  hope  is  placed,  will  not  have  the 
same  fate.  And  we  may  conclude  at  the  outset  of  this  study 
of  Franco- American  hybrids  that  whenever  we  have  the  choice 
for  reconstituting  our  vineyards  between  pure  American 
species  and  hybrids  of  American  species  between  themselves 
(Americo- American),  the  resistance  of  which  appears  a  better 
guarantee,  we  must  not  hesitate  to  use  the  latter.  We  think 
it  is  possible,  nowadays,  to  reconstitute  all  vineyards  with 
pure  American  vines  or  their  hybrids. 

Hybrids  of  V.  Vinifera  and  V.  Rotundifolia.— Millar- 
det and  de  Grasset  tried  experimentally  the  hybridization  of 
Vinifera  and  Rotundifolia,  and,  although  the  botanical  dif- 
ferences of  these  two  species  are  strongly  accentuated,  they 
obtained  forms  which  seemed  to  be  hybrids  of  Vinifera  X 
Rotundifolia.  One  of  these  -vines  shows  distinct  Rotundi- 
folia characters  in  its  seeds,  but  externally  the  Vinifera 
character  predominates.  The  Vinifera  seems  always  to  com- 
municate to  its  hybrids  with  V.  Rotundifolia  a  negative  re- 
sistance to  phylloxera. 

Hybrids  of  V.  Vinifera  and  V.  Labrusca  — The  Ameri- 
cans attempted  numerous  hybridizations  of  the  different  varie- 
ties cultivated  in  their  territorv,  mostlv  Labruscas  with  various 


174  AMERICAN    VINES. 

European  cepages,  with  the  idea  of  improving  the  quality 
and  productivity  of  indigenous  vines.  They  created  and 
are  still  creating  constantly  a  considerable  number  of  these 
hybrids.  Here  is  a  list  of  the  best  known,  with  their  origin, 
and  their  value  of  resistance  to  phylloxera : — 

Triumph  (Concord  and  Muscat-Chasselas  No.  6,  Camp- 
bell)— Resistance,  4. 

Senasqua  (Concord  and  Black  Prince,  Underbill)  — 
— Resistance,  5. 

Black  Defiance  (Black  St.  Peter  and  Concord,  Underbill) 
— Resistance,  5. 

Agawam  (Labrusca  and  Black  Hamburg  No.  15,  Rogers) 
— Resistance,  6. 

Campbell  (seedling  of  Triumph,  Munson). 

Herbert  (Labrusca  and  Black  Hamburg  No.  44,  Rogers). 

Highland  (Concord  and  Muscat  No.  57,  Ricketts). 

Irwing  (Concord  and  White-Frontignan  No.  8°,  Under- 
bill)— Resistance,  5. 

Lindley  (Labrusca  and  Golden-Chasselas  No.  9,  Rogers). 

Gartner  (White-Chasselas  and  Labrusca  No.  14,  Rogers). 

Black  Eagle  (Labrusca  and  Vinifera  No.  812,  Rogers) 
—Resistance,  3 ;  etc. 

The  non-success  obtained  in  the  culture  of  European 
cepages  in  America  was  exclusively  attributed,  before  the 
discovery  of  phylloxera  in  France,  to  the  action  of  the 
climate.  It  was  with  an  idea  of  endowing  the  European 
cepages  with  a  greater  faculty  of  adaptation  to  climate  that 
hybridization  was  first  undertaken.  It  was  easy  to  foresee 
(a  fact  which  the  American  hybridizers  overlooked)  that  the 
crossing  of  a  V.  Vinifera  of  negative  resistance  and  a  V. 
Labrusca  with  very  limited  resistance  would  produce  a  vine 
of  little  resistance.  This  is  what  actually  occurred.  The 
resistance,  given  above,  of  the  principal  of  these  hybrids  is 
very  small.  On  account  of  this  fact  alone,  these  hybrids, 
especially  those  which  have  had  a  certain  fame  in  France 
(Triumph,  Senasqua,  Black  Defiance},  have  no  value  what- 
ever. They  could  only  succeed  and  thrive  in  rich,  fresh, 
sandy  soils,  especially  in  northern  regions,  where  the 
phylloxera  would  not  have  much  effect  upon  them,  and 
where  they  could  easily  and  rapidly  produce  new  roots.  In 
dry  and  unfertile  soils,  particularly  in  the  south  of  France, 
these  three  cepages  rapidly  succumb  to  the  attacks  of 
phylloxera.  In  rich  soil  their  grafting  on  more  resistant 


I  CEP  AGES.  175 

vines  would  always  give  superior  cultural  results.  More- 
over, though  possessing  a  relatively  high  productivity,  their 
very  foxy  fruit  gives  very  inferior  wines  to  those  yielded  by 
cepages  originating  from  Vinifera.  The  Labrusca  endows 
its  hybrids  with  the  very  strongly  accentuated  foxy  taste 
peculiar  to  its  pulpy  fruit.  The  white  berries  of  the  Triumph, 
large  and  abundant,  are  not  only  very  foxy  but  also  burst  at 
maturity.  The  Black  Defiance  is  the  least  foxy,  but  its  red 
wine,  like  that  made  from  Senasqua,  always  retains  an  after 
taste  of  the  same  nature. 

The  Labrusca  communicated  to  all  this  group  great 
sensitiveness  to  black-rot  and  mildew,  but  also  a  relative  re- 
sistance to  oidium  and  anthracnosis. 

All  these  cepages  are  now  discarded,  with  good  reason,  but 
they  are  interesting  from  the  point  of  view  of  adaptation  to 
calcareous  soil.  The  Vinifera  impressed  them  (and  we  will 
see  that  this  phenomenon  is  constant)  with  a  certain 
resistance  to  chlorosis.  The  Triumph,  for  instance,  thrives 
better  than  pure  Riparia,  Rupestris,  or  Labrusca  in  soils 
containing  a  certain  amount  of  limestone,  and  in  the  chalky 
soils  of  the  Charantes;  this  property  of  adaptation,  which 
does  not  belong  to  Labrusca,  has  been  imparted  by  the 
Vinifera  to  these  hybrids.  This  fact  must  not  be  overlooked. 

Hybrids  of  V.  Vinifera  and  V.  California.—  These 
two  non-resistant  vines  cannot  give  resistant  hybrids;  their 
offspring  are  therefore  without  interest. 

Hybrids    of   V.    Vinifera    and    V.    Candicans.— These 

hybrids  generally  have  very  great  vigour.  Their  fruit,  when 
they  bear  any,  always  has  a  harsh  taste,  similar  to  that  of 
Mustang;  their  resistance  to  phylloxera  is  usually  small.  In 
calcareous  soils  they  become  a  very  yellow ;  they  therefore  offer 
very  little  interest  for  the  reconstitution  of  -vineyards.  They 
root  freely  from  cuttings. 

Hybrids     of    V.     Vinifera,     V.     Labrusca,     and     V. 
^Estivalis  — Among    these    hybrids    we    will    mention,    to- 
gether with  their  resistance  to  phylloxera,— 
Eumelan — Resistance,  3. 
Centennial     (Eumelan     and     Delaware,     seedling     of 

Marwin). 

White  Delaware — Resistance,  3. 
Grey  Delaware — Resistance,  3. 


176  AMERICAN    VINES. 

Croton  (Delaware  and  Chasselas  of  Fontainebleau, 
seedling  of  Bull) — Resistance,  3. 

Duchess  (Concord  and  Delaware,  seedling  of  Cay- 
wood) — Resistance,  2. 

Beauty  (Delaware  and  Maxatawny,  seedling  of  Rom- 
mel)— Resistance,  3. 

None  of  these  hybrids  are  of  any  value  for  reconstitution, 
on  account  of  their  feeble  resistance  to  phylloxera.  Several 
were  used  at  the  commencement  of  the  introduction  of 
American  vines  (Eumelan),  but  were  quickly  discarded; 
others,  which  are  very  fructiferous  (Beauty,  Delaware),  bear 
foxy  fruit,  and  should  not  be  used  under  any  circumstances. 
The  Delaware  is  one  of  the  most  widely  cultivated  cepages 
in  the  north  of  the  United  States,  where  the  phylloxera,  on 
account  of  the  soil  and  climate,  only  has  a  comparatively 
slight  effect.  We  will  note,  however,  a  few  interesting  facts 
so  far  as  adaptation  is  concerned.  These  cepages  are  more 
resistant  to  chlonosis  in  calcareous  soils  than  yEstivalis  or 
Labrusca ;  the  Delaware  is  more  resistant  than  Eumelan, 
and  possesses  the  characters  of  the  Vinifera  to  a  greater 
degree.  In  this  group  of  hybrids,  the  Croton  is  best  adapted 
to  calcareous  soils,  in  which  it  thrives  as  well  as  Othello,  as 
long  as  it  is  not  attacked  by  phylloxera;  the  Croton  has 
two  Vinifera  elements  in  its  parents  (^Estivalis  X  Labrusca 
X  Vinifera  and  Vinifera). 

All  the  cepages  of  this  group  obtained  and  experimented 
upon  in  France  are  the  result  of  the  crossing  of  York- 
Madeira  with  V.  Vinifera.  Their  composition  is  as  follows : — 
V.  ^Estivalis  ^,  V.  Labrusca  >4,  V.  Vinifera  y2.  But  the 
Yiork-Madeira,  like  its  progenitors,  does  not  resist  chlorosis ; 
if,  therefore,  its  hybrids  with  V.  Vinifera  have  a  large  geo- 
graphical area  of  adaptation,  they  cannot  thrive  in  very 
calcareous  soils;  in  the  chalky  soils  of  Charentes  they 
become  yellow  and  stunted  very  rapidly.  Moreover,  their 
resistance  to  phylloxera  and  vigour  is  small.  Among  these 
hybrids  are  Nos.  1304,  1106,  2102,  and  904,  or  Cognac  of 
Couderc.  The  latter,  which  has  foxy  grapes,  is  so  sensitive 
to  limestone,  in  the  Charentes,  that  it  dies  the  first  year  of 
planting  out. 

Hybrids    of    V.     Vinifera     and    V     Cinerea.— The  V. 

Cinerea    thrives    well    in    compact    damp    soils    deficient    in 
limestone.     Crossed  with  V.  Vinifera,  this  species  would  give 


CEPAGES.  177 

;graft-bearers  of  great  value  for  such  soils.*'  But  other  hybrids 
<of  Rupestris,  Riparia  or  Cordifolia  with  Vinifera,  which  have 
a  more  powerful  root  system,  would  thrive  equally  well  in 
similar  soils.  However,  the  Cinerea  hybrids  could  only 
render  services  in  such  soils  if  they  were  resistant  to 
phylloxera. 

One  of  the  progenitors  of  V.  Cinerea  is  very  sensitive  to 
chlorosis,  and  the  strain  of  Vinifera  contained  has  not 
endowed  them  with  a  very  high  resistance  to  that  disease, 
therefore  they  are  useless  for  the  chalky  soils  of  the 
Charentes.  All  those  tried  in  these  soils  became  yellow  the 
first  year  of  planting  out,  and,  when  grafted,  rapidly 
.succumbed.  They  root  freely  and  knit  well. 

Hybrids  of  V.  Vinifera,  V.  Labrusca,  V.  >£stivalis, 
and  V.  Cinerea. — Millardet  assumes  that  the  Alvey  is  the 
result  of.  the  union  of  four  species.  The  cepage  is  only  slightly 
resistant  to  phylloxera  (resistance,  7)  and  is  now  only  to  be 
found  in  collections.  It  is  without  interest.  Let  us  note 
that  its  resistance  to  chlorosis  is  small,  inferior  to  that  of 
Jacquez  or  Blue  Favourite,  which  is  no  doubt  due  to  the 
predominance  of  its  American  progenitors. 

Hybrids  of  V.  Vinifera,  V.  >Cstivalis,  and  V.  Cinerea. 

—This  group  contains  very  well-known  cepages  of  great 
interest :  the  following  list  shows  their  resistance  to 
phylloxera : — 

Jacquez — Resistance,  12. 

Saint-Sauveur  (Jacquez  X  Bouschet-Hybrid,  seedlings 

of  G.  Bazille) — Resistance,  3. 
Jacquez  d'  Aurelle  (seedlings  of  Jacquez  Nos.  I  and  2, 

of  Aurelle) — Resistance,  9. 
Jacquez,  with  large  berries  (cuttings  of  Jacquez  Nos.  I 

and  2,  of  Aurelle) — Resistance,  9. 
Herbemont — Resistance,  13. 

Dunn   (seedlings  of  Herbemont,  of  American  origin). 
Exquisite     (seedlings      of    Herbemont,    of    American 

origin). 
Harwood     (seedlings     of     Herbemont,     of     American 

origin) — Resistance,  10. 
Y  oakum     (seedlings     of     Herbemont,     of     American 

origin). 
Harvard     (seedlings     of     Herbemont,     of     American 

origin). 


178  AMERICAN    VINES. 

McKee  (seedlings  of  Herbemont,  of  American  origin). 
Herbemont,     of    Aurelle     (seedlings     of     Herbemont 

No.  i  and  No.  2,  or  Aurelle) — Resistance,  3. 
Herbemont  Touzan,  (Herbemont  Touzan,  of  Lauze)  — 

Resistance,  10. 
White     Herbemont      (seedlings     of     Herbemont,     of 

Malegue) — Resistance,  10. 
Black  July — Resistance,  n. 
Blue  Favourite — Resistance,  10. 
Cunningham — Resistance,  1 2. 
Rulander — Resistance,  2. 
Car  par  (seedlings  of  Rulander),  etc. 

The  hybrid  nature  Vinifera  X  ./Estivalis  (Jacquez,  Rulander) 
of  these  cepages  was  ascertained  by  numerous  experimen- 
ters. Millardet  indicated,  from  their  ampelographic  charac- 
ters, their  relationship  to  ./Estivalis,  Cinerea,  and  Vinifera. 
This  ternary  relation  is  more  especially  marked'  in  Jacquez, 
Blue  Favourite  and  Rulander;  and  less  marked  in  Herbe- 
mont, Black  July,  and  Cunningham,  but,  in  all  of  them,  the 
^Estivalis  predominates  in  their  ampelographic  characters, 
particularly  in  the  characters  of  seed,  berry,  and  leaf,  except, 
perhaps,  for  the  Rulander,  in  which  the  Vinifera  has  had 
more  influence,  which  is  decidedly  evident  in  the  character  of 
its  seeds ;  on  the  other  hand,  it  also  possesses  the  least  re- 
sistance to  phylloxera.  Herbemont  and  Cunningham,  which 
show  the  least  influence  of  Vinifera,  also  evidence  decided  in- 
fluence of  V.  Cinerea.  We  shall  see,  when  studying  their 
adaptation,  that  the  predominance  of  some  of  their  progenitor 
species  explain  these  differences. 

The  origin  of  these  different  cepages,  particularly  Jacques 
and  Herbemont  (their  descendants  excepted),  is  very  obscure. 
Munson  includes  them  in  a  general  group  corresponding  to 
the  old  ^Estivalis  group  of  the  south,  of  Engelmann,  and 
considers  it  as  a  species,  which  he  named  V.  Bourquiniana  in 
honour  of  G.  Bourquin  of  Savannah  (Georgia),  who  tried  to 
determine  the  origin  of  this  group. 

G.  Bourquin  held  from  his  ancestors,  who  cultivated  them  for 
more  than  150  years,  and  according  to  him  imported  them 
from  Europe,  two  vines :  Blue  French  grape  and  Brown  French 
grape.  Munson  considers  the  former  would  be  the  Jacquez 
and  the  latter  the  Herbemont.  According  to  these  two 
American  viticulturists  the  Jacquez  and  Herbemont  were 


CEPAGES. 


179 


Fig.  87. — Leaf  of  Jacquez. 

imported  from  Europe  to  Savannah  at  the  time  of  the  first 
colonization  in  that  country ;  Munson  thinks  "  the  same1 
applies  to  Black  July,  Rulander,  and  a  few  other  vines  of 
this  type  which  have  also  an  obscure  origin  which  leads  us 
to  suppose  that  they  were  imported  via  the  Madeira  Islands." 
The  relationship  with  Vinifera  can  only  be  explained  in  the 
above  manner. 

Certain  historical  facts  which  we  have  not  been  able  to 
check  have  come  under  our  notice,  they  would,  if  verified, 
give  more  weight  to  this  new  idea,  as  the  Jacquez  and  Her- 
bemont  cannot  have  been  hybridized  with  Vinifera  in 
America,  for  they  were  known  in  the  south  of  Texas,  from 
whence  they  were  distributed  all  over  the  United  States,  from 
as  far  back  as  100  years  ago,  long  before  any  cepages  of 


l8o  AMERICAN    VINES. 

European  origin  had  been  imported  into  the  country.  The 
vineyards  in  the  Madeira  Islands  would  have  been  destroyed 
long  before  the  invasion  of  oidium;  at  that  time  importa- 
tions of  vines  from  Virginia  and  the  Central  States  would 
have  taken  place.  Accidental  hybridization  might  have 
been  produced  in  the  Madeira  .vineyards  between  imported 
American  cepages  and  indigenous  vines,  and  these  hybrids 
would  have  subsequently  been  imported  into  the  United 
States  by  the  colonists.  If  this  was  the  case,  vines  of  their 
nature  should  be  found  in  the  south  of  Europe.  Munson 
thinks  he  has  discovered  Herbemont,  or  forms  .very  similar 
to  it,  in  the  seeds  of  a  vine  recently  imported  from  the 
province  of  Valencia  (Spain)  into  Texas. 

The  Jacques  (Fig.  87)  only  exists  exceptionally  in  Texas; 
its  cultivation  has  never  extended  on  account  of  the  great 
sensitiveness  of  its  leaves  to  mildew  and  black-rot.  Various 
attempts  at  culture  of  this  vine  on  a  large  scale  had  to  be 
abandoned,  and  Herbemont  has  replaced  and  is  still  replacing 
Jacquez  in  the  few  districts  where  it  is  cutivated.  The  Her- 
bemont (Fig.  88)  is,  in  effect,  very  resistant  to  mildew  and 
black-rot,  which,  until  recently,  was  the  greatest  obstacle  in 
the  culture  of  vines  in  the  .United  States.  As  for  the 
Cunningham,  Rulander,  and  Black  July,  they  are  almost 
unknown  in  America.  The  Cunningham,  which  was  culti- 
vated in  a  few  restricted  places,  was  quickly  discarded ;  this 
also  applies  in  France  to  Rulander  which  succumbed  to 
the  attacks  of  phylloxera.  The  Black  July  has  always  been 
kept  in  collections,  for  its  productivity  was  thought  to  be 
inferior  to  that  of  Jacquez,  and  because  these  two  cepages 
were  until  lately  considered  only  as  direct-producers.  The 
Cunningham  on  account  of  its  great  vigour  has  been  grafted 
and  extolled  as  a  graft-bearer  in  marly,  rather  calcareous 
soils ;  the  results  obtained  are  very  conflicting. 

Cunningham  and  Herbemont  are  less  resistant  to  chlorosis 
than  any  others  of  this  group,  although  their  resistance  is 
superior  to  the  American  species  they  originate  from ;  they 
are,  from  this  point  of  view,  very  inferior  to  Jacquez  and 
Rulander.  We  consider  they  derive  these  characters  from 
V.  Cinerea  which  predominates  over  V.  Vinifera  in  Jacquez 
and  Rulander. 

All  these  cepages,  especially  Herbemont  and  Jacquez 
which  interest  us  most,  have  great  affinity  to  grafting  with 
European  vines,  properties  which  also  result  from  their 


CEPAGES. 


181 


relationship  with  Vinifera.  As  we  shall  see  when  studying 
grafting,  this  concordance  of  affinity  accounts  for  the  produc- 
tion of  grafts  upon  Jacquez  or  Herbemont  being  normal  and 
equal  to  that  of  the  French  cepages  when  ungrafted ;  it 
accounts  also  for  the  maturation  of  their  fruit  not  being 
hastened,  as  takes  place  in  the  case  of  grafts  upon  Riparia 


Fig.  88. — Leaf  of  Herbemont. 

and  Rupestris,  which  are  also  more  fructiferous.  This  is 
caused  by  the  difference  of  affinity  existing  between  these 
graft-bearers  and  European  vines. 

These  cepages  do  not  root  as  freely  from  cuttings  or 
grafted-cuttings  as  French  vines,  or  Riparia,  Vialla,  etc.,  but 
the  proportion  of  strike  is,  however,  high,  and  often  attains, 
with  ordinary  barked  cuttings,  80  to  85  per  cent.  When  the 
nurseries  are  established  carefully,  when  the  grafts  are  well 


l82  AMERICAN    VINES. 

made  and  well  attended  to,  one  obtains  with  Jacquez  and 
Herbemont  quite  as  good  knittings,  and  a  proportion  of 
strike  quite  as  great  as  with  other  graft-bearers,  it  was 
wrongly  supposed  that  the  Jacquez  presented  great  difficulty 
from  this  point  of  view. 

All  these  cepages  accommodate  themselves  perfectly  to  the 
climates  of  the  various  viticultural  regions  of  France,  as  has 
already  been  said  in  the  first  part  of  this  work;  there  is  no 
danger  ,of  the  grafted  Jacquez  or  Herbemont  being  injured 
by  winter  frosts.  This  is  certain  so  far  as  Herbemont  is  con- 
cerned. The  cold  during  the  winter  of  1890-91  did  not 
injure  grafted  Jacquez  even  in  regions  where  the  fall  of  tem- 
perature was  very  considerable  ( — 30°  C. ;  Isere).  In  Maine- 
et-Loire,  Jacquez  vines  twenty-five  years  old  are  still  in  exist- 
ence; some,  twelve  years  of  age,  are  to  be  found  in  Vendee, 
and  in  the  Charentes  of  from  fifteen  to  sixteen  years.  In 
Virginia  and  Missouri,  where  the  thermometer  falls  to  — 25° 
and — 28°  C.,the  Jacquez  has  never  been  affected  by  the  frost. 
It  is  now  positively  ascertained  that  Jacquez  and  Herbemont 
succeed  well,  as  far  as  climate  is  concerned,  in  the  coldest 
regions  in  France.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  Herbemont 
grows  better  in  the  north  than  in  the  hot  dry  districts  of  the 
south,  while  Jacquez  grows  almost  everywhere. 

The  resistance  of  Jacquez  and  Herbemont  (12)  is  not  of 
the  highest  degree,  but  is  sufficient  for  many  soils  in  the 
centre,  west,  and  north  of  France.  In  warm  and  dry 
regions,  in  very  poor  soils,  phylloxera  destroy  a  great  propor- 
tion of  the  hair  roots,  and  produce  nodosities  and  tuberosities, 
important  enough  to  injure  the  vine,  but  the  weakening  seen 
in  this  case  is  less  noticeable  in  rich,  or  fresh  well-manured 
soils.  The  cases  of  weakening  and  exhaustion  of  Jacquez, 
in  dry  and  poor  soils,  is  far  from  being  constant;  the  cases 
of  certain  and  durable  success  are  numerous.  There  are 
still  in  existence,  in  the  Gard  and  in  the  south-west  of 
France,  Jacquez  30  years  of  age,  which  are  still  quite  as 
vigorous  as  when  first  planted  out.  Jacquez  plantations 
twenty  to  twenty-five  years  of  age,  grafted  three  to  four  years 
after  planting  out,  are  not  uncommon  in  the  south  of  France 
in  fresh  soils  of  medium  fertility. 

But  we  must  admit  that  there*  is  no  reason  for  Herbe- 
mont to  be  used  as  a  graft-bearer  and  still  less  as  a  direct- 
producer.  The  Jacquez,  which  renders  some  service  for 
reconstitution  in  fairly  calcareous  soils  where  Riparia  did 


CEPAGES.  183 

not  thrive,  must  now  be  replaced  by  more  resistant  cepages 
possessing  the  same  properties  of  adaptation,  such  as  Riparia 
X  Rupestris,  Rupestris  du  Lot,  Berlandieris,  and  Berlandieri 
X  Riparia. 

The  Jacquez,  which  have  been  used  for  reconstitution  in 
fresh  and  rich  soils  where  phylloxera  has  not  a  very  intense 
action,  and  where  they  may  easily  recuperate  their  hair-roots, 
are  always  very  vigorous,  grafted  or  not,  and  we  have  no  rea- 
son to  doubt  their  stability. 

Jacquez  has  been  used  for  a  very  long  time  in  the  south 
of  France,  where  its  grapes  ripen  well  when  it  is  grown  as  a 
direct-producer,  on  account  of  the  intense  colour  and  high 
alcoholic  strength  of  the  resulting  wine.  Its  wine  always 
retains,  notwithstanding  special  treatments,  a  viotet  colour, 
which  seriously  interferes  with  the  sale.  But  it  was,  until 
recently,  very  much  used  as  graft-bearer  in  the  south  of 
France  as  well  as  in  northern  regions.  It  was,  along  with 
Solonis,  a  common  graft-bearer,  which  accommodated  itself 
best  to  rather  calcareous  soils.  It  becomes  yellow  and 
stunted  in  white  marls  and  in  chalky  limestone,  but  when 
grafted  can  withstand  an  amount  of  limestone  in  which 
Riparia,  Rupestris,  Vialla,  etc.,  rapidly  succumb.  In  the 
south  of  France,  for  instance,  it  is  green  and  vigorous  in 
marly  laminated  limestone  of  the  Miocene,  where  Riparias 
become  affected  by  chlorosis  and  die  a  few  years  after  being 
grafted. 

Further,  the  Jacquez  thrives  well  in  blue  clay,  bluish 
marl,  calcareous  marls,  and  generally  in  all  compact  and 
fresh  soils  where  Riparia  and  Rupestris,  although  not  chlor- 
osed,  have  little  vigour.  The  Jacquez,  on  the  contrary,  is 
very  vigorous,  and  its  excessive  vigour  sometimes  brings 
about  non-setting,  but  this  defect  can  be  easily  remedied  by 
long  pruning.  The  Jacquez,  like  European  vines,  knits 
well  when  grafted  at  a  certain  age  (between  six  ur  seven 
years  old  or  more),  which  is  not  the  case  for  Riparias  and 
Rupestris. 

We  will  not  insist  on  the  value  of  Jacquez  seedlings,  such 
as  Saint-Sauveur,  Jacquez  d'Aurelle,  Jacquez  with  large 
berries,  Herbemont,  d'Aurelle,  Herbemont  Touzan,  White 
Herbemont.  All  these  cepages  succumb  to  the  attacks  of 
phylloxera,  and  have  deen  discarded. 

The  seedlings  of  Herbemont,  of  American  origin  (Dunn, 
Hanvood,  McKee),  have  the  same  qualities  and  defects  as 


184  AMERICAN    VINES. 

Herbemont.  Finally,  let  us  note  that  the  Blue  Favourite 
has  the  same  properties  of  adaptation  as  the  Jacquez,  and  is 
more  vigorous  but  less  resistant  to  phylloxera. 

Hybrids   of    V.    Vinifera   and   V.    Cordifolia.— The  V. 

Cordifolia  has  very  great  vigour  and  attains  considerable 
dimensions.  This  quality  reappears  in  its  hybrids  with  Vini- 
fera, which  are  very  strong  and  vigorous  plants,  possessing  a 
powerful  root  system.  If  resistant  to  phylloxera,  they  would 
constitute  graft-bearers  of  great  value  for  all  non-calcareous 
soils.  They  become  very  yellow  in  chalky  or  calcareous 
soils,  and  are  of  no  value  in  such.  Their  cuttings  root  freely, 
and  their  grafts  knit  well.  They  might,  therefore,  be  mul- 
tiplied in  compact,  clayey,  or  damp  soils,  as  also  in  dry,  poor, 
but  non-calcareous  soils. 

Hybrids  of  V.  Vinifera  and  V.  Berlandieri. — These 
hybrids  have  all  been  obtained  in  France.  These  vines 
offered,  a  priori,  the  greatest  interest  for  the  reconstitute  on 
•of  -vineyards  in  calcareous  soils.  Their  progenitors  are,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  two  species  of  vines  which  thrive  best  in 
such  soils.  We  may  recall  the  development  which  Folle- 
Blanche,  Pinot,  Colombeau,  etc.,  all  vigorous  varieties  of 
V.  Vinifera,  attain  in  the  chalky  and  very  calcareous  soils  of 
being  too  weak,  or  on  account  of  the  variety  of  V.  Ber- 
landieri, as  already  stated,  is  the  American  species  which 
thrives  best  in  soils  of  this  nature.  Non-grafted,  its  finest 
varieties  are  as  resistant  to  chlorosis  as  Folle-Blanche.  Its 
hybrids,  therefore,  must  possess  a  high  resistance  to  chlor- 
osis, and  the  numerous  experiments  conducted  by  the  writers 
prove  this  in  an  incontestable  manner. 

All  the  hybrids  of  this  group  cultivated  in  the  Charentes 
have  always  remained  green  when  non-grafted,  even  greener 
than  Folle-Blanche  planted  side  by  side  with  them.  Several 
grafted  with  Folle-Blanche  have  never  shown  a  trace  of 
chlorosis,  even  in  the  second  year,  which,  as  we  have  shown, 
is  the  time  when  the  disease  reaches  its  greatest  intensity. 
Others,  on  the  contrary,  have  become  yellow  on  account  of 
t>eing  too  weak,  or  ion  account  of  the  variety  of  V.  Ber- 
landieri intervening  in  the  crossing  being  itself  too  weak,  or 
incapable  of  thriving  in  calcareous  soils.  We  should  always 
choose  the  most  vigorous  of  these  hybrids,  as  applies  to  all 
-cepages. 


CEPAGES. 


As  already  said,  it  is  not  sufficient  for  an  American  vine 
to  thrive  vigorously,  when  non-grafted,  in  chalky  soils,  for 
it  has  to  constitute  a  good  graft-bearer.  Many  of  them  have 
a  fine  development  in  such  soils  when  non-grafted,  but  when 
grafted  the  whole  appearance  alters;  they  turn  yellow  and 
become  stunted.  The  reason  of  this  phenomenon  will  be 


Fig.  89.— Leaf  of  Cabernet  X  Berlandieri,  No.  333,  Ecole. 

given  later  on  (see  page  214).  The  graft-bearers  must  not 
suffer  from  the  operation  of  grafting,  and,  therefore,  must 
be  as  similar  as  possible,  in  their  physiological  func- 
tions, to  the  scions  they  are  to  bear.  The  Vinifera  strain 
which  the  Berlandieri  hybrids  contain  increases  their 
facility  of  adaptation,  and  diminishes  also  the  ill-effects 
of  grafting.  For  these  two  reasons  the  hybrids  Vinifera 


1 86 


AMERICAN    VINES. 


X  Berlandieri  would  be  preferable  to  pure  Berlandieri  if  they 
possessed  good  phylloxera-resistant  qualities. 

We  know  how  difficult  it  is  to  multiply  this  species  from 
cuttings ;  its  hybrids,  on  the  contrary,  are  very  easily  mul- 
tiplied by  this  means;  they  knit  perfectly,  are  very  fruc- 
tiferous, and  do  not  present  any  pad  of  knitting  tissue  at  the 
joint. 

Among  these  hybrids  we  will  mention  the  Tisserand 
(Cabernet  X  Berlandieri  No.  333  of  the  School  of  Agricul- 
ture, Montpellier)  (Fig.  89),  which  has  always  remained  green 


Fig.  go. — Leaf  of  Chasselas  X  Berlandieri,  No.  41,  Millardet  and  de  Grasset. 


CEP  AGES.  187 

when  grafted  in  the  strongly  chalky  soils  of  the  Charentes ; 
unfortunately,  it  has  not  realized  expectations  as  far  as 
phylloxera  is  concerned.  The  Chasselas  X  Berlandieri  No. 
41,"  of  Millardet  and  de  Grasset  (Fig.  90),  is  also  very  remark- 
able in  its  resistance  to  chlorosis,  even  in  strongly  calcareous 
soils ;  Millardet  considers  it  resistant  to  phylloxera. 

Hybrids  of  V.  Vinifera  and  V.  Monticola. — Several  of 
these  hybrids  are  of  fairly  great  vigour.  Their  faculty  of 
adaptation  for  calcareous  soils,  although  not  equal  to  that 
of  Vinifera  X  Berlandieri  is  rather  high.  Couderc  has 
created  a  few  complex  hybrids  of  Vinifera,  Rupestris,  and 
Monticola,  which  present  a  certain  amount  of  interest. 

Hybrids  of  V.  Vinifera  and  V.  Rupestris. — These  are, 
along1  with  Cordifolia  hybrids,  the  most  vigorous  vines  in 
existence.  Their  trunk  increases  in  size  .very  quickly  and 
yields  canes  occasionally  so  large  that  a  portion  of  the  cane 
cannot  be  used  for  grafting.  The  root  system  is  also  very 
powerful. 

They  strike  easily  from  cuttings,  as  easily  as  European 
varieties;  but,  like  Rupestris,  grafting  on  the  growing- 
stock  does  not  succeed  unless  all  the  eyes  on  the  stock  are 
removed  previous  to  the  operation.  Their  grafted  cuttings 
succeed  well  if  the  precautions  indicated  further  on  for  Rupes- 
tris, are  taken. 

These  graft-bearers  are,  therefore,  interesting.  But  what 
is  their  faculty  of  adaptation?  We  know  that  V.  Rupestris 
is  largely  affected  by  chlorosis.  Its  hybrids,  on  account  of 
their  Vinifera  strain,  become  less  yellow,  and  when  un- 
grafted  in  the  most  chalky  soils  of  the  Charentes  they  have 
a  luxuriant  vegetation,  although  sometimes  at  the  second  or 
third  year  after  planting  out  a  slight  yellow  tint  becomes 
apparent  here  and  there.  But,  when  grafted,  they  become 
more  yellow  in  such  soils  and  are  quite  valueless.  In  groies 
soils  where  chlorosis  has  less  gravity  some  of  them  thrive 
well  and  remain  green  and  vigorous  whether  grafted  or 
not. 

To  sum  up,  the  Vinifera  X  Rupestris  hybrids  have  a 
geographical  area  of  adaptation  much  more  extended  than 
the  Rupestris  or  Riparia.  In  the  Experimental  Station  of 
Cognac,  where  they  are  planted  side  by  side,  the  Rupestris 
has  a  resistance  to  chlorosis  represented  by  4,  the  Riparia 
by  5,  the  maximum  being  20;  the  hybrids  Vinifera  X 


i88 


AMERICAN    VINES. 


Rupestris  vary  between  7  and  16.  These  figures  show  how 
great  the  influence  of  V.  Vinifera  is  on  the  faculty  of  adapta- 
tion of  American  vines. 

The  grafts  existing  on  these  hybrids  are  very  vigorous, 
very  fertile,  and  their  fruit  ripens  early. 

Several  hybrids  of  Vinifera  and  Rupestris  have  been  advo- 
cated as  direct  producers.  Most  of  them  yield  poorly  and  bear 
non-foxy  but  tasteless  grapes.  The  berries  are  generally 
small,  sometimes  very  intense  in  colour.  However,  the 
grafting  with  European  -varieties  diminishes  their  faculty  of 
adaptation.  It  is  certain  that  most  of  them  would  grow 
well  in  calcareous  soil.s,  but  the  poor  quality  of  their  fruit 
does  not  enable  them  to  be  utilized. 

As  a  certain  number  of  these  hybrids  are  already  in  the 
hands  of  the  vine-growers,  we  will  now  study  them. 


Fig.  91. — Leaf  of  Aramon  X  Rupestris,  Ganzin,  No.  i. 


CEP  AGES.  189 

Aramon  X  Rupestris  G  an  sin  No.  I  (Fig.  91). — Obtained 
by  Ganzin.  This  is  one  of  the  most  resistant  to  phylloxera 
and  chlorosis;  it  has  the  qualities  of  most  of  the  hybrids  of 
V.  Vinifera  and  Rupestris.  Quite  useless  for  chalky  soils, 
becoming  yellow  also  in  groies  soils.  This  graft-bearer  would, 
therefore,  only  be  of  use  in  slightly  calcareous  or  damp  and 
compact  soils. 

Aramon  X  Rupestris  Ganzin  No.  2. — Becomes  more  yellow 
than  the  previous  hybrids  in  calcareous  soils ;  its  vigour  is 
similar,  it  knits  well  when  grafted,  like  all  cepages  of  this 
group. 

Camay  Couderc  or  Colombean  X  Rupestris  Martin  No. 
3103. — Obtained  by  Gouderc,  who  fecundated  the  Colombeau 
(a  Provence  cepage),  with  Rupestris  Martin.  This  cepage 
lias  a  fairly  powerful  growth,  and  was  considered  as  proof 
against  phylloxera.  Unfortunately,  its  resistance  is  far  from 
being  good,  at  least,  in  the  collection  at  the  School  of  Agri- 
culture, Montpellier,  where  its  roots  bear  numerous  nodosities 
and  some  tuberosities ;  phylloxera  weakens  it,  and  the  vine 
soon  becomes  completely  stunted  in  the  clay  calcareous  soil 
in  which  these  collections  are  growing.  Under  these  circum- 
stances, we  consider  it  would  be  unwise  to  multiply  them  as 
graft-bearers  in  clay-calcareous,  calcareous,  dry,  and  unfer- 
tile soils,  especially  in  the  south  of  France.  As  direct  pro- 
ducers they  yield  very  poorly,  and  the  berries  are  too  small. 
Their  faculty  of  adaptation  is  the  same  as  that  of  other 
hybrids  of  the  group ;  they  are  useless  for  the  chalky  soils 
of  the  Charentes,  and  become  slightly  yellow  in  groies  soils. 

Mourvedre  X  Rupestris  No.  1202. — Is  more  vigorous  and 
less  affected  by  calcareous  soils.  Would  probably  be  'one  of 
the  best  Rupestris  hybrids  for  poor  soils;  we  must,  however, 
recognise  that  it  withers  away  like  the  Gamay-Couderc,  as 
the  result  of  the  attacks  of  phylloxera,  in  the  collection  of 
the  School  of  Agriculture,  Montpellier. 

We  will  also  mention  a  few  others  created  by  Couderc. 

Bourrisquou  X  Rupestris  Martin  Nos.  60 1,  603,  604. 

Chasselas  X  Rupestris  Martin  Nos.  poi,  2001,  1103. 

Mourvedre  X  Rupestris  Ganzin  No.  1203. 

Rupestris  X  Petit-Bouschet  Nos.  503,  504. 

Rupestris  X  unknown  No.  1206  as  direct  producers,  and 

Camay  X  Rupestris  Ganzin  Nos.  1001,  1002. 

Pineau  X  Rupestris  Martin  No.  1305,  as  graft-bearers. 


IQO  AMERICAN    VINES. 

Millardet  and  de  Grasset  also  obtained  a  great  number  of 
similar  hybrids. 

Gros  Col  man  X  Rupestris  A?o  160  are  more  vigorous 
than  the  Rupestris  hybrids  so  far  tried  in  the  chalky  soils 
of  the  Charentes;  they  also  become  less  yellow,  although 
useless  for  those  soils.  They  root  very  freely  from  cuttings, 
the  grafts  knit  well,  and  are  very  fructiferous.  In  the  groies 
soils  of  the  Charentes  they  are  better,  and  do  not  become 
yellow,  whether  grafted  or  not.  The  development  of  their 
grafts  is  very  satisfactory ;  but  Millardet  has  ascertained  that 
their  resistance  to  phylloxera  is  not  sufficient. 

Cabernet  X  Rupestris  No.  33  are  also  -very  vigorous  and 
fairly  resistant  to  chlorosis. 

Alicante-Bouschet  X  Rupestris  No.  139  are  less  well 
adapted  to  chalky  soils,  and  become  yellow  in  groies  soils. 

Alicanle-Bouschet  y:  Rupestris  No.  136  of  the  School  of 
Agriculture,  Montpellier.  Has  a  powerful  vegetation,  but  is 
not  adapted  to  calcareous  soils,  and  could,  therefore,  only  be 
cultivated  in  compact,  siliceous,  and  non-calcareous  soils,  for 
which  the  pure  species  is  still  superior.  These  hybrids 
seem  to  be  the  best  as  far  as  resistance  to  phylloxera  is 
concerned. 

We  might,  again,  mention  many  other  hybrids  of  Vinifera 
and  Rupestris  obtained  by  Millardet,  de  Grasset,  Couderc, 
Castel,  the  School  of  Agriculture,  Montpellier,  Terras,  etc. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  considerable  numbers  of  these  hybrids 
have  recently  been  created;  the  Rupestris,  on  account  of  its 
great  vigour,  has  been  much  utilized  as  a  hybridizing  agent 
in  binary,  ternary,  or  more  complex  combinations.  What 
has  just  been  said  will  suffice  to  give  an  idea  of  the  general 
properties  of  adaptation  of  this  group.  We  cannot  study  all 
its  forms. 

A  few,  however,  have  been  advocated  as  direct  producers, 
such  as  Franc's  Hybrid,  Alicante  X  Rupestris  Terras  No. 
20,  etc.  These  vines  are  relatively  fructiferous  as  far  as  the 
number  of  grapes  is  concerned,  but  the  yield  is  always  small 
compared  with  that  given  by  the  European  vines,  and,  more- 
over, the  quality  of  their  wine  is  inferior  to  that  of  the  most 
common  French  wines.  The  colouring  matter  of  the  wine 
from  these  hybrids  is  sometimes  very  intense ;  but  it  has 
the  defect  of  all  Rupestris  produce,  that  of  rapidly  attenuating. 
Their  resistance  to  phylloxera  has  not  yet  been  ascertained. 


f 


CEP  AGES. 


Ganzin  created  by  the  union  of  Aramon  X  Rupestris 
Ganzin  No.  i  with  large  Clairette,  a  hybrid  which  he  named 
Golden  Clairette  Ganzin.  It  is  a  cepage  with  white  grapes, 
very  fructiferous,  ripening  late,  giving  sweet  fruit,  and  rela- 
tively good  wines.  The  Alicante-Gamin  was  obtained  by 
the  fecundation  of  Aramon  X  Rupestris  Ganzin  No.  I  with 
Alicante-Henri  Bouschet.  It  is  a  very  fructiferous  cepage 
with  coloured  juice,  giving  a  -very  fine  wine,  but  it  is  also  a 
hybrid  containing  Vinifera  strain,  and  its  resistance,  like  that 
of  Golden  Clairette  Ganzin,  seems  very  doubtful. 

Hybrids  of  V.  Vinifera,  V.  Labrusca  and  V. 
Rupestris.  —  Only  one  of  these  hybrids  (Triumph  X 
Rupestris)  has  been  tried  by  the  writers  in  the  chalky  soils 
of  the  Charentes.  Its  composition  is  as  follows: — V. 
Vinifera,  *4  ;  V.  Labrusca,  *4  ;  V.  Rupestris,  l/2.  The  slight 
strain  of  Vinifera  it  contains  has  not  endowed  it  with  resist- 
ant qualities  to  chlorosis,  it  becomes  very  intensely  yellow, 
and  is  therefore  of  no  interest  for  reconstitution  of  vine- 
yards. 

Hybrids  of  V.  Vinifera,  V.  Rupestris.    and  V.   Lince- 

cumii. — Seibel,  of  Aubenas,  obtained  many  hybrids  of  this 
group,  which  are  very  fructiferous,  and  would  give  a  wine 
of  good  quality  (Seibel  Hybrids).  We  doubt  their  resist- 
ance to  phylloxera,  and  their  resistance  to  chlorosis  is  un- 
known. 

Hybrids  of  V.  Vinifera  and  V.  Arizonica. — None  of 
these  hybrids  (if  obtained  in  France),  have  been,  so  far,  ex- 
perimented upon.  We  cannot  therefore  state  precisely  their 
qualities  of  adaptation.  We  can  however  presume,  after 
what  has  been  said  of  V.  Arizonica,  that  it  is  probable  that 
these  hybrids  would  resist  chlorosis  better  than  those  of 
Rupestris,  without  however  possessing  their  great  -vigour. 

Hybrids  of  V.  Vinifera  and  V.  Riparia.— The  V.  Riparia 
resists  chlorosis  better  than  V.  Rupestris.  We  may  there- 
fore expect  that  its  hybrids  with  Vinifera  will  be  less  subject 
to  chlorosis,  and  this  is  actually  the  case.  In  the  experi- 
mental plots  of  the  Viticultural  Station  of  Cognac,  the  green 
tint  of  the  Riparia  hybrids  is  readily  distinguishable  from 
that  of  the  Rupestris  hybrids;  and  they  seem  superior  to 
the  best  of  the  latter. 


192  AMERICAN    VINES. 

Although  very  vigorous,  their  vegetation  is  slightly  less 
than  that  of  the  Rupestris  hybrids,  they  are  however  re- 
markable cepages  with  a  trunk  increasing  in  size  almost  as 
rapidly  as  that  of  the  scion;  the  pad  of  callus  at  the  knitting 
point  is  comparatively  insignificant.  Their  grafts  are  very 
vigorous  and  very  fertile. 

They  would  be  useless  for  chalky  soils,  for  when  grafted 
they  become  yellow.  They  remain  greener  in  the  groie 
soils  of  the  Jurassic.  Their  resistance  to  phylloxera  is 
doubtful. 

The  Aramon  X  Riparia,  Nos.  143  and  141,  of  Millardet  and 
de  Grasset,  possesses  the  same  qualities,  but  cannot  be  re- 
commended for  chalky  soils,  as  applies  to  all  the  cepages  of 
this  group. 

The  following  cepages  possess  the  same  quality  of  adapta- 
tion:— Petit-Bouschet  X  Riparia  Nos.  jooi  and  3002,  of 
Couderc,  Colombeau  X  Riparia  Nos.  2501,  2502,  Petit- 
Bouschet  X  Riparia  No.  142,  of  the  School  of  Agriculture,. 
Montpellier,  which  is  more  fructiferous  and  bears  finer 
grapes  than  the  Hybride-Franc ;  but  the  quality  of  its 
wine  is  inferior  and  its  resistance  to  phylloxera  is  very 
uncertain. 

Hybrids  of  V.  Vinifera.  V.  Labrusca  and  V.  Riparia. 

—These  ternary  hybrids  which  were  created  in  America  are 
varied  and  interesting.  In  a  general  way,  the  two  elements, 
Labrusca  and  Vinifera,  have  endowed  them  with  an  inferior 
resistance  to  phylloxera,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  figures 
quoted  hereafter;  the  Riparia  corrected  this  important 
defect  in  only  very  rare  cases  (Autuchon).  The  more  the 
Vinifera  predominates  the  weaker  the  resistance  (Canada 
Secretary),  but  the  less  foxy  the  taste  of  the  fruit  is.  The 
resistance  to  mildew  and  black-rot  is  very  slight,  which  is 
due  to  the  influence  of  the  Vinifera  and  Labrusca  (Canada, 
Secretary,  Othello).  The  forms,  the  foliage  of  which  has 
the  greatest  similarity  to  that  of  V.  Riparia  have  also  the 
greatest  resistance  to  mildew  (Autuchon,  Cornucopia). 

But  the  influence  of  V.  Vinifera  is  most  pronounced  in  the 
characters  of  adaptation,  endowing  these  hybrids  with  a 
relatively  high  resistance  to  chlorosis.  We  will  insist  on 
this  point  when  studying  a  few  of  these  hybrids  which  had,, 
but  fortunately  have  not,  actually,  a  great  importance  in 
France. 


CEPAGES.  193 


The  following  are  the  principal,  with  their  origin  and  re- 
sistance to  phylloxera.  We  will  note  that  they  are  mostly 
hybrids  of  Clinton  (Riparia  X  Labrusca)  and  European 
vines : — 

Othello  (Clinton  X  Black  Hamburg  No.  i,  Arnold)— 

Resistance,  6. 

Advance  (Clinton  X  Black  Hamburg,  Ricketts). 
Canada  (Clinton  X  Black  St.  Peter  No.  16,  Arnold)  — 

Resistance,  4. 
Brandt  (Clinton  X  Black  St.  Peter  No.  8,  Arnold)  — 

Resistance,  4. 
Cornucopia  (Clinton  X  Black  St.  Peter  No.  2,  Arnold) 

—Resistance,  4. 
Secretary    (Clinton   X    Muscat  Hamburg,   Ricketts)  — 

Resistance,  2. 
Autuchon     (Clinton  X  Golden     Chassels,     Arnold)  — 

Resistance,  7. 

Naomi  (Clinton  X  Muscat,  Ricketts). 
Waverley  (Clinton  X  Muscat,  Ricketts). 
Alma  (Bacchus  X  Vinifera,  Ricketts). 
August  Giant  (Black  Hamburg,  Marion). 
Rommel  (Triumph  X  Elvira,  Munson),  etc. 

Othello  has  never  had  any  importance  in  America, 
where  it  was  discarded  on  account  of  its  great  sensitiveness 
to  mildew,  black-rot,  grey-rot,  brown-rot,  and  sunstroke. 
The  Othello  is  generally  attacked  by  these  parasites  in 
France ;  in  dry  and  warm  regions  it  often  loses  its  leaves 
when  the  season  is  unusually  hot,  and  its  fruit  frequently 
becomes  sunburnt. 

The  resistance  of  Othello  to  phylloxera  (6)  is  relatively 
weak;  therefore,  in  soils  favorable  to  the  multiplication  of  the 
insect  and  in  warm  regions,  th£  phylloxera  may  weaken  it 
and  bring  about  its  death  after  four  or  five  years  (numerous 
cases  in  the  south  of  France,  one  case  in  the  nursery  at 
Fontenay-le-Comte  in  poor  soils,  different  case  in  the  Cote 
d'Or  in  unfertile  soils).  The  Othello  can  only  resist  phyl- 
loxera in  temperate  and  cold  climates,  where  the  insect  pro- 
gresses slowly,  and  in  fresh  rich  soils,  which  check  the 
development  of  the  insect  and  favour  the  development  of 
numerous  hair-roots.  But  in  such  soils  the  grafting  of 
French  varieties  on  resistant  and  well-adapted  graft-bearers 
will  always  give  results  superior  to  those  which  might  be 


194 


AMERICAN    VINES. 


Fig.  92.— Leaf  of  Othello. 

obtained  by  cultivating  Othello.  This  cepage  possesses, 
however,  great  fertility,  yields  of  900  gallons  of  wine  per 
acre  have  been  obtained  in  certain  rich  soils;  moreover, 
its  maturity  is  precocious,  which  renders  its  culture  possible 
in  the  most  northern  vine-growing  countries.  But  the  wines 
made  from  Othello,  as  all  those  made  of  other  American 
direct-producers  actually  known,  are  inferior  to  the  most 
ordinary  wines  made  from  European  cepages.  They  always 
retain,  the  Othello  particularly,  a  foxy  after-taste,  so  much 
the  more  pronounced  as  the  wine  originates  from  a  warmer 
climate.  In  northern  regions  the  foxy  taste  attenuates 
rapidly,  and  may  even  disappear  after  a  few  rackings. 


CEP AGES.  195 

The  Othello  has  certainly  been  too  much  propagated  in 
France,  for  the  different  reasons  above-mentioned,  and  actu- 
ally it  must  now  always  be  discarded. 

It  has  been  noticed  that,  when  ungrafted,  Othello 
possessed  a  certain  resistance  to  chlorosis.  B.  Chauzit 
pointed  out  this  fact  that  Othello  grew  without  becoming 
attacked  by  chlorosis  in  soils  containing  up  to  50  per  cent, 
of  carbonate  of  lime.  Similar  facts  have  been  noticed  else- 
where. The  writers  were  the  first  to  point  out  that  this 
resistance  to  clorosis  was  due  to  its  relationship  with  V. 
Vinifera.  Othello  has  been  known  to  remain  green  in 
chalky  and  marly  soils  where  Noah,  Riparia,  Rupestris,  and 
Vialla  quickly  become  yellow  and  stunted.  If,  however, 
these  soils  are  favorable  to  the  action  of  phylloxera,  it  only 
lives  a  few  years.  Let  us  remember  this  fact — that  Othello 
resists  chlorosis ;  it  is  the  only  quality  it  inherits  from  V. 
Vinifera. 

Canada,  Brandt,  Secretary,  Cornucopia,  Autuchon. — The 
same  phenomena  of  adaptation  to  calcareous  soils  which 
have  been  pointed  out  for  Othello  also  apply  to  these  cepages. 
This  is  again  due  to  the  influence  of  V.  Vinifera. 

We  have  shown,  at  the  beginning  of  this  work,  a  special 
case  with  reference  to  Cornucopia.  Let  us  notice  that  the 
Secretary,  the  most  influenced  by  Vinifera  and  therefore  the 
least  resistant  of  these  hybrids,  is  also  the  least  affected  by 
chlorosis  in  calcareous  soils.  Canada,  Brandt,  and  Autuchon 
have  the  same  faculties  of  adaptation  as  Othello. 

Autuchon  is  the  most  resistant  of  all  of  these  to  phyllox- 
era (7)  ;  this  explains  its  greater  vigour  in  certain  marly 
calcareous  rather  poor  soils.  It  bears  white  non-foxy  grapes, 
with  a  special  agreeable  taste,  but  has  very  slight  produc- 
tiveness, and  is  therefore  without  cultural  value. 

The  Secretary  derives  from  the  Muscat  Hamburg  large 
fruit,  juicy,  with  a  slight  Muscat  taste;  it  is  fructiferous, 
but  its  resistance  is  only  slightly  superior  to  that  of  varieties 
of  V.  Vinifera.  Canada  and  Brandt  are  less  resistant,  and 
less  resistant  than  Othello,  but  their  fruit  has  a  clean  taste. 

As  for  the  Cornucopia,  it  not  only  produces  less  than 
the  latter  (Othello),  but  its  fruit  is  almost  as  foxy;  it  is,  how- 
ever, the  most  vigorous  of  all. 

None  of  these  cepages  can  render  any  service ;  their  culture 
should  be  entirely  abandoned  everywhere. 


196  AMERICAN    VINES. 

Among  cepages  of  this  group  we  will  mention  the  Canada 
Riparia  Nos.  2401  and  2412,  which  are  graft-bearers  advo- 
cated by  Couderc. 

Of  the  hybrids  of  this  group,  obtained  in  France,  which  we 
have  studied,  some  have  l/^  Vinifera  strain  (Canada  X 
Riparia),  some  J/£,  others  ^. 

One  of  these,  Oporto  X  Colombeau,  No.  1401  of  Couderc, 
has  been  recommended  as  a  direct-producer.  It  gives,  it  is 
true,  fruit  of  a  fairly  large  size,  but  foxy  taste.  Its  resist- 
ance to  phylloxera  is  slightly  superior  to  that  of  York;  but 
its  area  of  adaptation  is  very  limited.  It  can  only  be  culti- 
vated in  siliceous  or  slightly  calcareous  soils,  where  grafted 
American  vines  grow  very  well. 


CULTURE. 


197 


PART  III. 


CULTURE. 

(a)  Conclusions  (Choice  of  Varieties}. — From  what 
precedes,  it  results  that  the  first  quality  required  from  a 
grafting-stock,  or  direct-producer,  is  a  high  resistance  to 
phylloxera ;  and,  in  every  case  that  a  soil  is  equally  suited 
to  all  the  American  -vines,  only  the  most  resistant  should  be 
planted. 

The  following  table  summarizes  what  has  already  been 
said  from  this  point  of  view  for  most  of  them ;  we  will 
indicate  their  resistance  in  the  order  in  which  we  studied 
them,  and  draw  attention  that  the  maximum  resistance  or 
absolute  indemnity  is  represented  by  the  figure  20 : — 

SCALE  OF  RESISTANCE  TO  PHYLLOXERA. 


Absolute 

V.    Rotundifolia    .  .           .  .  19 

V.  Labrusca  (wild  form) .  .  5 

L     Concord         j      •  •           •  •  3 

_  Isabella  F]    !    .  .          .  .  5 

F    Ives    seedling    .  .           .  .  4 

V.    Californica      .  .           .  .  4 

V.  Candicans  (Mustang) .  .  15 

V.    Lincecwnii      .  .           .  .  14 

V.  JEstivalis  (wild  form) .  .  16 
V.    Berlandieri — 

Berlandieri  Millardet    .  .  17 

Berlandieri  Planchon    .  .  17 

Berlandieri  Vialla        .  .  17 

Berlandieri  de  Grasset .  .  17 

Berlandieri     Ecole        .  .  17 

V.    Cprdifolia        .  .          .  .  18 

V.  Cinerea  (form  studied)  15 

V.  Rupestris — 

Rupestris  Mission         .  .  18 

Rupestris  du  Lot          .  .  16 

Rupestris    Ganzin         .  .  18 

Rupestris  Martin  .  .  18 
Rupestris , with  violet  shoots  1 8 
Rupestris,  with  metallic 

leaves              .  .          -. .  18 

Rupestris  Ecole             .  .  18 

Rupestris  of  Fortworth  18 
Rupestrisof  Kansas  (Jaeger)  18 

Rupestris   No.    62         .  .  18 

Rupestris  Arkansas      .  .  18 


mmunity,  20. 

Rupestris    Cleburne     .  .  18 

Rupestris   No.    66        .  .  18 

Rupestris  of  Texas      .  .  18 

Rupestris  No.  64          .  .  18 

Rupestris  No.  66          .  .  18 

Rupestris  #  (Couderc)  .  .  18 

Rupestris    Y     "            .  .  18 

V.    Monticola        .  .          .  .  17 

V.    Arizonica         .  .           .  .  18 

V.  Riparia — 

Riparia    Gloire  de  Montpel- 

lier 18 

Riparia  Grand  Glabre  .  .  18 

Riparia  Scuppernong  .  .  18 

Riparia  Baron  Perrier  18 
Riparia     Tormenteux 

geant 18 

Riparia  Ramond          .  .  18 

Riparia     Martineau     .  .  18 

V.  Rubra        18 

V.   Coignetice       :«•; . '\*      ..  3 

V.  Amurensis         .  .          .  .  2 

V.    Thunbergi        .  .          .  .  1 

V.  Vinifera — 

Aramon               .  .          .  .  0 

Pineau                 .  .           .  .  0 

Chasselas           ....    .       ..  0 

Grenache            . .          . .  0 

Etraire  de  la  Dhui      .  .  1 

Colombeau  1 


198 


AMERICAN    VINES. 


SCALE  OF  RESISTANCE  TO  PHYLLOXERA continued. 

Berlandieri  X  Rupestris — 

No.  1       12 

Berlandieri  X  Rupestris — 

No.  2         16 

Berlandieri  X  Manticola— No.  1  14 

No.  6  15 

No.  8  10 

Cordifolia  X   Rupestris  de  Gras- 

set  No.    1            .  .           .  .  18 

Cinerea  X  Rupestris  (Munson)    16 

Triumph          .  .           .  .           .  .  4 

Senasqua        . .           .  .           .  .  5 

Black  Defiance          .  .           .  .  5 

Agawarn          .  .           .  .           .  .  6 

Irwing               .  .           .  .           .  .  5 

Black  Eagle  .  .          .  .          .  .  3 

Eumelan          .  .           .  .           .  .  3 

Delaware  white         .  .           .  .  3 

Delaware  grey            .  .         •.  .  3 

Croton             3 

Duchess           2 

Beauty            3 

Alvey               .  .           .  .           .  .  7 

Jacquez           .  .           .  .  12 

Saint-Sauveur            .  .           .  .  3 

Jacquez  d'Aurelle — No.  1    .  .  9 

Jacquez,  with  large  berries  11 

Herbemont                  .  .           .  .  12 

Harwood         .  .           .  .  10 

Herbemont   d'Aurelle          .  .  3 

Herbemont  Touzan               .  .  12 

Black  July                  .  .           .  .  11 

Blue    Favorite           .  .          .  .  9 

Cunningham               .  .           .  .  12 

Rulander        V.           .  .           .  .  2 

Othello            6 

Canada        iSSX       •  -          ;M  4 

Brandt          -J.           ..'          ..  4 

Cornucopia     ..           ..    i  S§3  4 

Secretary        ..        ..«','.    -,v<V  2 

Autuchon       ..          £%HH  •<-•••*•  ^ 

In  grouping  the  principal  and  best  known  varieties  we 
arrive  at  the  following  table,  showing  their  scale  of  resist- 
ance, the  maximum  being  20: — 

No.  20.— Absolute  immunity  (?). 

No.  19. — V.  Rotundifolia. 

No.   18.— V.     Riparia,     V.     Rupestris,     V.     Cordifolia, 

Riparia   X   Rupestris,   Cordifolia   X   Riparia, 

Cordifolia  X  Rupestris. 


Psalmodi         ""'*.. 

1 

Ugni  blanc 

1 

Cabernet  Sauvignon,  etc. 

0 

Various  Hybrids  — 
York   Madeira 

11 

Cynthiana 

14 

Hermann 

10 

Pauline 

12 

Taylor              -',:> 

13 

Noah 

14 

Elvira 

10 

Clinton 

10 

Vialla 

14 

Black    Pearl      .  . 

8 

Bacchus              .  .          >..v^ 

12 

Oporto                 .  .          ',  ^i- 

12 

Blue  Dyer          .  .      .  .  .  .  ' 

8 

Uhland 

9 

Marion                .  .         .  .  .=  .; 

14 

Catawba 

4 

Diana                   .  .           *;•  i 

4 

Huntingdon 

10 

Berlandieri  X  Candicans  — 

No.  1 

14 

No.  2 

14 

No.  3 

14 

Barnes         .  .           .  . 

14 

Berlandieri  Bouisset     .  ."..' 

16 

Champins  glabrous 

14 

Champin  tomentose 

12 

Belton     

17 

Candicans  X  Monticola  — 

No    35  Ecole 

17 

Candicans  X  Riparia    ... 

16 

Solonis    .  .           .  . 

14 

Solonis,  with  lobed  leaves 

14 

Hutchison           .  .          ... 

15 

Mobeetie             .  .         ...    ' 

16 

Doaniana            .  . 

13 

Rupestris  X  Taylor     .  . 

16 

Rupestris  de  Lezignan 

16 

Az6mar               .  .          '.  "   • 

16 

I 

CULTURE.  199 

No.  17. — V.  Berlandieri,   V.  Monticola   (?),  Riparia  X 
Berlandieri,  Riparia   X   Monticola,  Rupestris 
X  Berlandieri. 
No.  16. — Rupestris     du     Lot,    Rupestris    de    Lezignan, 

Cinerea,  Rupestris,  Riparia  X  &stivalis. 
No.  15. — V.  Cinerea,  V.  JEstivalis,  V.  Candicans. 
No.  14. — Vialla,  Solonis,  Novo-Mexicana,  Noah. 
No.   13. — Taylor,  Michigan. 
No.   12. — Jacquez,  Herbemont. 
No.  ii. — York-Madeira. 
No.  10. — Elvira. 

Numbers  below  10. — Othello,  Autuchon,  Concord,  V. 
Labrusca,  Senasqua,  Black  Defiance,  Croton. 
Duchess,  etc. 

The  numbers  16  to  20  correspond  to  a  sufficient  resistance 
for  all  soils;  the  numbers  14  and  15  express  a  resistance 
sufficient  for  sandy  and  damp  soils,  where  the  phylloxera 
does  little  harm ;  No.  13,  and  under,  should  be  totally  discarded 
from  vineyards. 

However,  there  are  cases  where  the  choice  of  a  -vine  cannot 
be  altogether  subordinated  to  its  resistance  to  phylloxera. 
We  have  already  mentioned,  in  the  first  part  of  this  work, 
the  example  of  the  Cornucopia  and  Solonis,  and  could  add 
several  others. 

For  sandy  and  damp  soils,  where  the  phylloxera  multi- 
plies but  little,  vines  of  medium  resistance,  but  well 
adapted  to  these  soils,  should  be  preferred  to  other  more 
resistant  cepages,  which  would  not  develop  as  well. 

In  the  choice  of  a  variety  numerous  circumstances,  which 
are  of  influence  on  the  growth,  must  be  taken  into  account. 

These  circumstances  have  been  studied  at  length  in  the 
first  and  second  parts  of  this  work.  Here  we  will  only 
recapitulate  the  general  points,  and  indicate,  for  each  of  them 
separately,  the  comportment  of  the  American  vines.  It 
goes  without  saying  that  in  each  circumstance  these  in- 
fluences operate  in  varying  proportions;  the  growth  of 
American  -vines  is,  therefore,  determined  by  their  combined 
influence ;  on  this  the  choice  of  a  vine  depends. 

Several  American  -vines  of  only  slight  resistance  grow 
well,  for  example,  in  dry  soils ;  but  frequently  phylloxera 
has  a  very  intense  action,  and  they  have  to  be  excluded  from 
these  soils.  Others  have  a  very  fine  growth  in  a  given  soil, 
but  for  some  reason  or  other  they  do  not  set  properly,  and, 


200  AMERICAN    VINES. 

in  this  case  again,  they  have  to  be  discarded.  These  examples 
will  guide  the  reader  in  the  interpretation  of  the  following 
indications. 

It  is  evident  that  in  the  choice  of  a  vine  for  reconstitution 
we  must  consider: — 

ist    The  resistance  to  phylloxera,  already  discussed. 

2nd.  The  influence  of  the  soil,  which  is  associated  with  :— 

(I.)  HUMIDITY. — The  vines  which  accommodate  themselves 
best  to  this  condition  are — Cinerea,  Mustang  and  its 
hybrids,  hybrids  Vinifera  X  Cinerea,  Rupestris  du  Lot, 
Jacques,  Herbemont,  Vialla,  Solonis,  hybrids  of  Vinifera  X 
Rupestris,  Vinifera  X  Riparia,  York;  then,  Riparia,  Rupes- 
tris; amongst  the  direct  producers,  Othello,  Canada,  Autu- 
chon,  Cornucopia,  Herbemont,  Noah,  Elvira,  etc.,  which  are 
not  affected. 

(II.)  COMPACTNESS.— For  this  the  American  vines  may  be 
classed  in  the  same  order  as  the  preceding  item. 

(III.)  ARIDITY. — The  Rupestris  is  the  vine  which  does 
best  in  poor  soils ;  then  come — Hybrids  Vinifera  X  Rupestris, 
Jacques,  Herbemont,  hybrids  Vinifera  X  Riparia,  Vialla, 
Cordifolia  X  Rupestris,  Riparia  X  Rupestris,  Solonis, 
Riparia. 

(IV.)  PREDOMINANCE  OF  SILICA. — (a)  Under  the  form 
of  fine  sand — Vialla,  Rupestris  du  Lot,  hybrids  Vinifera  X 
Rupestris,  hybrids  Vinifera  X  Riparia,  Jacques,  Herbemont, 
Rupestris,  Solonis,  Riparia,  and  the  least  resistant  vines. 
(b)  Under  the  form  of  coarse  sand — Hybrids  Vinifera  X 
Rupestris,  Rupestris  du  Lot,  hybrids  Vinifera  X  Riparia, 
Rupestris,  Riparia,  Jacquez,  Solonis.  s 

(V.)  AMOUNT  OF  LIMESTONE  IN  THE  SOIL. — From  this  point 
of  view  the  American  vines  may  be  classed  as  follows : 

In  the  foremost  place — Hybrids  Vinifera  X  Berlandieri, 
and  the  Berlandieri,  Riparia  X  Berlandieri,  Rupestris  X  Ber- 
landieri, the  hybrids  Vinifera  X  Riparia,  hybrids  Vinifera  X 
Rupestris,  Jacquez,  Solonis,  Rupestris  du  Lot,  Riparia  X 
Rupestris.  Finally,  the  less  suitable — Riparia,  Rupestris, 
York,  Vialla.  Amongst  the  direct-producers — Cornucopia, 
Othello,  Autuchon,  Canada,  Brandt,  not  much  affected  by 
limestone ;  Noah,  Elvira,  much  affected. 

In  writing  down  a  scale  of  resistance  to  chlorosis,  we  obtain 
for  the  -value  of  the  various  graft-bearers : — 

No.  17  and  above, — V.  Vinifera,  Chasselas  X  Berlandieri 
or  4IB  (Millardet  and  de  Grasset)r  Tisserand  or  Cabernet  X 


CULTURE.  201 

Berlandieri   No.    jjj    (School   of   Agriculture,    Montpellier), 
many  of  the  Vinifera  X  Berlandieri. 

No.  1 6. — V.  Berlandieri. 

No.  15. — Riparia  X  Berlandieri. 

No.  14. — Rupestris  X  Berlandieri. 

No.  13.— F.  Monticola  (?). 

No.  12. — Vinifera  X  Rupestris. 

No.  ii. — Vinifera  X  Rupestris. 

No.  10. — Riparia  X  Monticola,  Taylor  X  Narbonne,  Colo- 
rado. 

No.  9. — Vinifera  X  Cordifolia,  Vinifera  X  Cinerea, 
Othello,  Jacquez,  Canada,  etc. 

No.  8. — Novo-Mexicana,  Solonis. 

No.  7. — Riparia  X  Rupestris  (loi7*  Millardet  and  de 
Grasset,  3310  and  3309  Couderc),  Riparia-Ramond,  Taylor,  etc. 

No.  6. — Riparias  (Gloire  de  Montpellier,  Martin  des  Pail- 
leres,  Tormenteaux,  Grand  Glabre,  Scribner),  Riparia  X  Cor- 
di folia  X  Rupestris. 

No.  5. — Rupestris  (Rupestris  Fortworth,  Ganzin,  Martin), 
V.  Arizonica,  Riparia  X  Rupestris  Gigantesque. 

No.  4. — Rupestris  X  JEstivalis,  Herbemont,  Riparia  X  Cor- 
difolia. 

No.  3. — Labrusca  X  Riparia,  Vialla,  Noah,  Clinton,  Elvira; 
Cordifolia  X  Rupestris,  Rupestris  X  Cinerea,  Triumph. 

No.  2. — F.  ^Estivalis,  V.  Cordifolia,  V.  Cinerea,  V.  Can- 
dicans,  V .  Labrusca. 

The  foregoing  numbers,  in  reference  to  chlorosis,  are  estab- 
lished in  such  a  manner  that  each  of  them  corresponds  to  a 
percentage  of  chalky  limestone  almost  equal  to  the  figure 
representing  it  multiplied  by  the  co-efficient  2.5. 

We  must  also  consider — 

(VI.)  THE  VIGOUR  OF  THE  GRAFTS. — The  American  vines 
are  classed  thus: — Hybrids  Vinifera  X  Rupestris,  Rupestris 
du  Lot,  Vinifera  X  Cordifolia,  Vinifera  X  Riparia,  Berlan- 
dieri, Rupestris,  Jacques,  Herbemont,  Vialla,  hybrids  Vini- 
fera X  Berlandieri,  Solonis,  Riparia,  York. 

(VII.)  THEIR  AFFINITY  with  the  European  vines  grafted 
on  them. — Foremost  come  the  hybrids  Vinifera  X  Berlandieri 
and  the  Vinifera  X  Rupestris,  hybrids  Vinifera  X  Cordifolia, 
Berlandieri,  Jacquez,  Vialla,  Herbemont,  the  hybrids  Vini- 
fera X  Riparia,  Rupestris,  Solonis,  Riparia,  York. 


202  AMERICAN    VINES. 

(VIII.)  FERTILITY  OF  GRAFTS.— rThe  Berlandieri,  Riparia. 
and  Rupestris  bear  the  most  prolific  grafts ;  then  follow  Vini- 
fera  X  Berlandieri,  hybrids  Vinifera  X  Riparia,  Vinifera  X 
Rupestris,  York,  Solonis;  then  Vialla,  Herbemont,  Jacques, 
Cunningham. 

(IX.)  EARLINESS  OF  RIPENING  OF  FRUIT. — The  earliest 
ripening  fruit  is  of  the  grafts  on  Riparia  and  Berlandieri, 
Rupestris,  Solonis;  then  hybrids  Vinifera  X  Riparia,  Vini- 
fera X  Rupestris,  Vinifera  X  Berlandieri;  later  still,  Vialla, 
Herbemont,  Jacques,  Cunningham,  York. 

(b)  Deep  Cultivation. — As  we  have  already  stated  in  the 
first  part  of  this  work,  the  vine,  like  all  plants,  prefers  a  deeply 
loosened  soil.  Trenching  is  therefore  necessary,  and,  if  not 
indispensable  (for  all  American  vines  can  grow  in  untrenched 
ground),  is  at  least  of  JJie  greatest  utility  for  such  varieties 
as  the  Riparia,  most  ofvthe  Rupestris,  etc.,  which  grow  very 
slowly  in  compact  soils.  Trenching,  however,  obtains  in 
many  vine-growing  regions  for  the  varieties  of  the  V. 
Vinifera,  and  in  many  places  not  a  single  vine  is  planted 
without  previously  trenching  the  ground  to  a  depth  of  20 
inches  or  even  3  feet. 

The  vine  grows  more  vigorously  during  the  first  years  in 
trenched  ground,  and  bears  fruit  at  the  third  leaf;  while  in 
non-trenched  ground  it  does  not  bear  crops  till  the  fifth  or 
sixth  year;  an  advantage  of  two  or  three  good  crops  is  thus 
derived.  It  is  always  important  to  gather  a  crop  as  soon  as 
possible,  to  cover  the  considerable  expenses  incurred  in  plant- 
ing a  vineyard;  trenching,  therefore,  is  more  than  ever 
necessary;  it  hastens  the  gnowth  of  the  vine,  and  places  it  in 
better  condition  for  its  future  development. 

It  is  especially  necessary  for  grafted  rootlings.  These 
young  plants,  often  weakly  at  the  time  of  planting,  and  with 
a  root  system  always  weaker  than  that  of  ordinary  rootlings, 
often  remain  sickly  when  planted  in  soils  which  are  not 
favorable;  thorough  trenching  greatly  facilitates  their  early 
growth. 

Generally  trenching  to  a  depth  of  about  20  inches  ^is 
sufficient  for  American  vines,  a  greater  depth,  however,  suits 
them  better.  It  may  be  done  either  by  hand  or  plough.  If, 
in  both  cases,  the  soil  is  not  very  calcareous,  the  subsoil 
should  be  brought  to  the  surface,  where  it  improves  by 
contact  with  the  air  and  under  the  action  of  successive 


CULTURE.  203 

manurings ;  thus  augmenting  the  thickness  of  arable  soil. 
Further,  as  this  is  devoid  of  grass  seeds,  the  vineyard  may 
be  easily  kept  free  from  weeds  for  several  years. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  calcareous  soils,  or  when  the  subsoil 
alone  is  very  calcareous,  the  latter  must  not  be  brought  to 
the  surface,  or  even  mixed  with  the  arable  soil.  We  all 
know  that  carbonate  of  lime  is  detrimental  to  the  vine; 
consequently,  it  is  useless  to  mix  it  with  the  organic  clay- 
siliceous  or  other  soils  in  which  the  roots  grow  well,  or  even 
to  place  it  on  the  surface,  where  the  rain  would  carry  it  to 
the  roots.  Such  a  trenching  would  cause  the  leaves  to  turn 
yellow,  and  consequently  prove  its  harmful  effect.  It  is  bet- 
ter in  such  cases  to  subsoil. 

Trenching  under  suitable  conditions  frequently  removes 
the  excess  of  water  from  damp  soils,  diminishes  their 
coldness,  and  renders  assimilable  the  matters  which  otherwise 
could  not  have  been  utilized  by  the  vines. 

(c)  Manuring  and  Planting. — Manuring  may  be  done  at 
the  same  time  as  trenching;  this  method  is  very  good. 
It  may  also  be  done,  when  planting,  with  farm  manure,  or 
chemical  fertilizer;  the  quantity  used  being  guided  by  require- 
ments. 

In  selecting  manures  care  must  be  taken  not  to  use  on 
already  very  calcareous  soils,  road  sweepings  of  calcareous 
material  or  debris  from  old  buildings;  they  induce  chlorosis, 
as  has  been  often  proved. 

If  grafted  rootlings  are  used,  further  manuring  should  be 
done  when  planting.  It  is  important  that  the  young 
grafted  rootlings  should  attain  as  great  a  development  as 
possible  during  the  first  year,  in  order  that  the  joint  may 
become  perfect,  and  the  roots  fully  established.  Those  grafted 
vines  which,  for  some  reason  or  other,  are  weak  during  the 
first  year  of  planting,  generally  remain  so.  Therefore,  it  is 
always  necessary  after  the  land  has  been  trenched  to  dig 
holes  large  enough  to  allow  all  the  roots  to  be  preserved; 
they  must  not  be  planted  with  a  dibble,  as  the  roots,  being 
left  only  ^  or  i  inch  in  length,  are  reduced  then  to  the  state 
of  ordinary  cuttings. 

In  transplanting,  the  various  organic  manures  (guano, 
oil-cake,  etc.)  are  preferable  to  chemical  manures,  as  they 
tend  to  keep  the  soil  loose  and  friable  round  the  roots. 
Chemical  manures,  when  in  too  close  proximity,  often  burn 
the  roots  and  stem,  considerably  affecting  the  welfare  of  the 


204  AMERICAN    VINES. 

new  plantation.  On  the  other  hand,  if  too  far  away  the 
effect  is  not  felt,  or  comes  too  late. 

When  stable  manure  is  used,  I  or  2  inches  of  soil  should 
be  placed  over  the  roots  before  applying  it,  and  a  thicker 
layer,  2  to  4  inches,  in  the  case  iof  chemical  manures.  The 
hole  is  then  filled  up  with  soil,  which  is  earthed  up  so  as  to 
cover  the  whole  of  the  old  wood  of  the  scion.  In  warm 
climates  the  jloint  is  placed  Y-Z  to  I  inch  above  the  surface  of 
the  soil,  in  cold  climates  a  little  below. 

Planting  should  be  done  between  November  and  April. 
The  vines  planted  before  or  during  the  winter  are  earthed 
up  to  the  fifth  or  sixth  eye  of  the  scion,  which  is  later  on 
pruned  level  with  the  top  of  the  mound.  In  spring  planting, 
the  mounds  need  not  be  so  high, — to  the  second  or  third  eye 
of  the  scion  is  sufficient;  but  it  is  an  important  and  essential 
condition  for  the  success  of  the  rooted-grafts  that  the  old 
wood  of  the  graft  be  completely  covered  with  soil.  The  ef- 
fect of  the  earthing  up  is  to  prevent  the  evaporation  of  moist- 
ure by  the  action  of  the  sun  and  wind  on  the  stem,  which, 
had  it  been  exposed,  the  rootlets  would  have  been  unable  to 
replenish,  being  deprived  of  their  absorbing  extremities. 
The  mounds  should  not  be  less  than  16  inches  in  diameter, 
and  each  vine  should  be  securely  tied  to  a  stake. 

Jn  July  the  mound  is  removed,  and  the  roots  which  have 
grown  on  the  scion  cut  off;  the  soil  is  then  slightly  earthed 
up;  later  on,  in  August  or  September,  the  joint  .should  be 
exposed  to  the  air.  The  reason  for  this  will  be  shown  later 
on. 

The  following  years  the  joint  is  exposed  by  hoeing  in 
spring  time;  this  effectually  prevents  any  rootlets  forming  on 
the  section. 

In  wet  compact  soils  the  planting  of  rooted-grafts  should 
only  be  done  after  the  ground  has  been  well  drained.  The 
soil  should  be  firmly  tamped  round  the  plant,  so  that  water 
will  not  accumulate  and  remain  around  the  vine,  preventing 
the  formation  of  roots. 

For  the  planting  of  cuttings  and  ordinary  rootlings  the 
precautions  indicated  by  current  practice  should  be  taken. 

Can  vines  be  planted  where  vines  have  already  been  grown 
and  uprooted? — It  is  well  known  that,  except  in  cases  where 
vines  have  died  from  cryptogamic  diseases  (Pourridie,  etc.), 
we  may  establish  the  new  vineyard  directly  after  the 
uprooting  bf  the  old  one.  If  the  soil  has  been  too  much 


/  CULTURE.  2O5 

impoverished,  its  fertility  must  be  recuperated  by  more 
abundant  manuring;  but  it  is  quite  useless  to  let  the 
ground  rest  for  several  years,  or  to  cultivate  annuals 
on  it. 

But  if  the  uprooted  vines  have  been  strongly  infected  with 
phylloxera,  and  the  roots  abundantly  covered  with  the 
insects,  it  would  be  absurd  to  replant  with  other  than 
American  vines  of  the  highest  resistance.  Feebly-resistant 
vines,  especially  when  young,  cannot  withstand  a  rapid  or 
strong  invasion. 

(d)  Ploughing. — The  object  of  ploughing  is  to  loosen  the 
surface  of  the  soil,  and  to  prevent  the  growth  of  weeds ;  it 
should  therefore  be  repeated  as  frequently  as  possible.     The 
first  ploughing  (bareing)  and  the  last  (earthing  up)  must  be 
fairly  deep  (6  inches)  ;  all  others  are    more    superficial,    and 
done  with  scarifiers  rather  than  with  ploughs ;  this  is  above 
all   indispensable   for  calcareous   soils.     We  know  that   deep 
ploughings  in   spring  frequently  cause  vines  to  become   yel- 
low and  that  in  all  soils  they  bring  about  non-setting  of  the 
grapes,  if  done  at  bloom  time.     The    reason    of    this    is    that 
the  plough,  by  destroying  the  roots    living    on    the    surface, 
that    is    to    say,     in    less    calcareous  soils,  forces  the  vine  to 
derive  its  nourishment  from  deeper  layers,  placing  it  there- 
fore   in    unsuitable    conditions    for    growth,    augmenting   the 
chlorosis,  checking  the  nourishment  of  all  organs,  and  there- 
fore of  the  bunches,  which  consequently  do  not  set. 

(e)  Distance  between   Vines. — No    improvement    can    be 
made  on  the  old  local    customs.     It    was    thought    that    the 
American   varieties   required   more   space   than   the   V.   Vini- 
fera,  but  this  is  not  true.     Attention   is  now   drawn  to  the 
fact   that   closely-planted   vines,    while   young,   give   a   better 
yield,  and  also  produce  wine  of  a  better  quality    than    those 
planted  at  a  greater  distance  apart.     Moreover,  in  ground  in 
which   the   subsoil   is   very   calcareous,   vines   planted   closely 
together,  having  a  more  limited  root  development,  live  more 
in  the  upper  layers,  and  are  therefore  less  liable  to  become 
yellow;  in  this  particular  case,  which  applies  to  very  import- 
ant vineyards,   the  adaptation   to   soil   is   rendered   easier  by 
close  planting. 

(f)  Layering. — The  layering  of  -vines  is  a  common  method 
of  cultivation  in  some  of  the  large  vineyard  districts   (Bour- 
gogne,    Champagne,    Ermitage,    C6te-R6tie,   C6tes-du-Rhone, 


206  AMERICAN    VINES. 

etc.),  and  it  is  said  that  the  quality  of  the  wine  in  those  dis- 
tricts results  from  that  method  of  culture.  Sometimes  the 
layering  is  done  annually,  and  all  over  the  vineyard,  as  in 
Champagne  (Marne)  ;  at  others  only  partially,  as  in  Bour- 
gogne,  Ermitage,  etc.  In  the  latter  case  the  whole  stump  is 
layered  when  the  vines  become  weak,  and  the  layers  are 
heavily  manured.  The  motive  for  layering  in  Champagne 
is  to  bring  the  pruning  wood  close  to  the  soil,  and  conse- 
quently the  grapes,  and  also  to  develop  the  roots  in  the  super- 
ficial layers  of  the  soil. 

From  numerous  studies  and  comparative  information  that 
we  have  been  enabled  to  gather,  we  are  of  opinion  that  it  is 
not  an  indispensable  operation  for  the  improvement  of  the 
quality  of  wines;  besides,  the  secondary  aim  of  layering 
(suppression  lof  the  lengthening  of  the  bearing- wood,  close- 
ness of  the  grapes  to  the  soil,  etc.)  may  be  obtained  without 
having  recourse  to  this  process,  the  details  of  which  we  will 
not  discuss  now.  We  believe  that  in  vineyards  planted  with 
grafted  American  vines  this  method  will  be  discarded. 

But,  should  we  desire  to  have  recourse  to  it  with  grafted 
American  vines,  the  operation  is  possible,  as  seems  to  result 
from  trials  made  in  this  direction.  The  liberation  of  the 
scion  is,  it  is  true,  possible  with  grafted  vines  which  are 
completely  buried  when  young  (one  to  two  years  old),  but 
the  abundant  growth  of  roots  and  their  vigorous  develop- 
ment on  the  scion  is  not  to  be  feared  if  the  vines  are  older 
and  the  knitting  perfect.  In  layering,  by  completely  bury- 
ing the  stump  (verified  by  experiments),  vines  of  three  or 
four  years  old  or  more,  the  liberation  of  the  scion  and  the 
indirect  diminution  of  vigour  of  the  stock  are  not  to  be 
feared.  We  may  therefore,  if  layering  is  regarded  as  an 
indispensable  operation  (Champagne),  practise  it,  only  start- 
ing it  on  knitted  vines  three  or  four  years  old.  The  roots 
growing  annually  on  wood  of  the  year  layered,  do  not  attain 
very  great  development,  for  they  are  generally  destroyed  by 
phylloxera.  Layering,  in  soils  containing  a  high  percentage 
of  soluble  limestone,  can  but  favour  adaptation.  In  the  chalky 
soils  of  the  Charentes,  grafts  on  Riparia  remain  green  if  a 
few  rootlets  are  left  on  the  scion;  those  growing  on  the 
layered  wood,  which  always  remains  weak,  attenuate  chlorosis. 

'Trials  on  layering  by  complete  burying  or  by  simple 
layering  were  made  at  Ermitage,  C6te-R6tie,  and  different 
parts  of  C6tes-du-Rhone.  They  show  the  possibility  of  the 


CULTURE.  207 

operation  with  grafted  vines.  Foex  has  had  annual 
layerings  of  Pinot  grafted  on  Taylor  made  at  the  School  of 
Agriculture,  Montpellier.  The  layering  started  in  1879, 
when  the  vines  had  only  been  grafted  one  year,  and  have  been 
continued  ever  since;  the  grafts  always  retain  the  same 
vigour,  and  have  not  become  liberated  fnom  the  stock;  the 
rootlets  grown  on  the  wood  annually  layered  always  re- 
mained weak,  and  were  destroyed  by  phylloxera  two  or  three 
years  after. 

(g)  Quality  of  Wine  from  Grafted  Vines. — We  think  it  is 
better  to  discuss  this  question  here  rather  than  when  study- 
ing grafting,  for  from  this  point  of  view  it  is  only  of 
secondary  importance. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  reconstitution  of  vineyards  with 
American  vines,  peculiar  ideas  were  formed  as  to  the  effects 
that  would  result  when  they  were  grafted  with  European 
vines.  It  was  said,  for  instance,  that  red  varieties  could  not 
be  grafted  on  white  kinds  (for  example,  Taylor),  and 
especially  that  French  grafts  made  on  Labrusca,  Candicans, 
Riparia,  etc.,  would  produce  wines  with  a  foxy,  acrid,  or 
harsh  taste.  The  numerous  experiences  known  by  agricul- 
turists and  arborculturists  should  have  at  once  condemned 
that  opinion ;  and  facts  have  since  proved  it  erroneous. 

It  is  now  admitted,  without  dispute,  that  wines  produced 
from  grafted  vines  are  not  only  of  equal,  but  of  appreciably 
superior  quality  (particularly  in  alcoholic  strength)  to  those 
produced  by  the  same  varieties  when  not  grafted.  This 
superiority  is  due,  in  most  cases,  to  the  earlier  ripening  of 
the  grapes,  as  will  be  explained  later  on. 

But  for  the  finest  wines  (grands  cms)  the  influence  of 
grafting  is  still  disputed.  Some  people  doubt  if,  in  the  dis- 
tricts producing  the  finest  wines,  the  grafted  vines  yield  as 
perfect  a  quality  as  that  obtained  before  the  reconstitution 
by  American  stocks,  and,  for  example,  that  the  grafted 
vines  require  excessive  manuring,  and  that  this  treatment, 
though  raising  the  quantity  of  wine  produced,  must  in- 
directly diminish  its  quality.  We  have  said  on  several  oc- 
casions, and  the  fact  is  now  well  known,  that  some  American 
vines  are  not  more  exacting  in  the  matter  of  fertility  than 
the  European  varieties.  And  again,  numerous  comparisons 
that  have  been  made  in  the  vineyards  producing  fine  wines 
(Burgundy,  Beaujolais,  and  Medoc)  have  fully  proved  that 
the  quality  of  the  wine  from  grafted  vines  is  equal,  if  not 


2O8  AMERICAN    VINES. 

superior,  to  that  from  non-grafted  vines.  It  is  evident  that, 
in  order  to  arrive  at  a  serious  deduction  in  the  comparison, 
the  fact  that  old  vines  give  wine  of  a  superior  quality  to 
young  vines  must  be  taken  into  account.  Conclusions  on 
this  point  are  only  of  value  when  the  wines  compared  have 
been  made  from  vines  of  equal  age,  the  same  variety,  grown 
in  similar  soils,  and  submitted  to  the  same  methods  of 
culture. 

We  know,  and  it  is  a  classical  fact,  that  grafting  generally 
improves  the  quality.  The  varieties  of  the  pear,  peach,  apple, 
etc.,  when  grafted,  bear  more  luscious  and  sweeter  fruit  than 
those  which  have  not  been  grafted,  and  grafted  vines  form 
no  exception  to  this  general  rule.  In  the  Beaujolais,  grafted 
vines,  eight,  ten,  and  twelve  years  old  give  wines  equal,  if 
not  superior  in  quality,  to  those  produced  before  the  phyl- 
loxera invasion  by  vines  of  the  same  age.  In  the  Blayais, 
comparisons  of  the  wines  from  grafted  vines  eight  or  ten 
years  old  have  been  made  with  great  care;  the  wines  pro- 
duced are  of  high  quality,  and  do  not  concede  any  points  to 
those  made  formerly.  The  same  may  be  said  of  several 
vineyards  (de  grands  crus)  in  the  Haut  and  Bas-Medoc,  and 
also  of  the  Saint-Emilionnais,  the  Libournais,  Ermitage, 
C6te-R6tie,  C6tes-du-Rhone,  Chateauneuf-du-Pape,  Nerte, 
Saint  Georges  (Herault),  where  comparisons  of  the  wine 
from  grafted  and  ungrafted  vines  five  to  sixteen  years  old 
have  been  made.  Everywhere,  and  without  exception,  the 
quality  has  been  maintained,  if  it  has  not  even  been  found 
superior. 

We  have  only  studied  here  the  cultural  questions  with 
regard  to  their  direct  bearing  on  reconstitution  with  Ameri- 
can vines  and  their  adaptation.  With  regard  to  the  com- 
plete study  of  ordinary  processes  of  culture  (pruning, 
ploughing,  manuring,  diseases  and  their  treatment,  etc.), 
we  refer  to  general  treatises  on  those  subjects,  and  to  special 
works  for  the  various  viticultural  regions  of  France. 


GRAFTING    AND    NURSERIES.  209 


PART  IV. 


GRAFTING  AND  NURSERIES. 

The  grafting  of  the  vine  has  been  known  for  centuries ; 
the  Roman  agriculturists  gave  very  precise  indications  as  to 
the  manner  of  performing  it.  The  same  methods  are  in  use 
now. 

In  our  French  vineyards  it  has  always  been  a  common  prac- 
tice, in  order  to  change  the  variety,  as  was  done  in  Languedoc, 
when,  after  the  advent  of  railway  communication,  Terret- 
Bourret  -vineyards  had  to  be  transformed  to  Aramon  vine- 
yards ;  or  in  order  to  substitute  fertile  varieties  for  non-set- 
ting varieties ;  or  to  enable  delicate  and  weak  varieties  to  grow 
in  poor  soils;  and,  as  often  done  now,  as  a  means  of  rapidly 
multiplying  rare  cepages. 

But  it  is  especially  since  the  use  of  American  vines  for  the 
reconstitution  of  vineyards  that  grafting  has  become  a 
general  practice.  In  1869  M.  Laliman,  at  the  Congress  at 
Beaune,  and  afterwards  Gaston  Bazille,  first  demonstrated 
its  great  importance.  Now  it  is  a  cultural  operation  with 
which  every  vigneron  is  familiar.  And  out  of  the  1,687,000 
acres  of  American  vines  cultivated  in  France  in  1895  at  least 
1,446,000  acres  were  grafted. 

I. ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  GRAFT. 

We  are  not  going  to  make  a  detailed  and  complete  study 
of  this  question.  Its  importance,  however,  is  very  great.  If 
we  knew  exactly  how  the  tissues  of  the  joint  knit,  the  con- 
ditions which  favour  or  check  the  knitting,  the  phenomena 
which  take  place  between  the  stock  and  the  scion,  which, 
while  they  preserve  their  individual  characters  are  obliged 
to  live  in  common,  the  knowledge  would  be  of  the  greatest 
utility,  particularly  if  the  desire  be  to  obtain  a  larger  per- 
centage and  better  joints,  and  for  the  choice,  when  it  is  pos- 
sible, of  a  grafting-stock  which  would  best  suit  a  given 
European  vine.  This,  however,  is  completely  unknown. 
We  will  endeavour  to  explain  how  to  understand,  from 
known  facts,  the  phenomena  of  grafting. 


210 


AMERICAN    VINES, 


(a)  Knitting  Tissue. — If  the  lower  section  of  a  cutting: 
bearing  one  or  two  buds  is  placed  under  suitable  conditions 
of  heat  and  moisture,  there  appears  on  its  side,  as  in  the 
case  of  any  other  cuttings,  small  protuberances,  termed  callus 
(Fig.  93),  which  are  nothing  but  masses  of  healing  tissue. 
They  are  more  numerous  and  more  developed  towards  the 
lower  end  of  the  section  (Fig.  93)  ;  and  on  the  splice  of  a 
scion  cut  in  the  whip-tongue  method  the 
callus  appears  first  at  the  lower  end  of 
the  splice;  on  the  side  and  upper  ex- 
tremity it  only  develops  later  on.  The 
object  of  these  tissues  is  to  cover  the 
wound  made  by  this  cut  by  a  kind  of 
suberous  (corky)  layer,  and  to  act  as  a 
protection  against  outside  influences  (de- 
cay, etc.)  affecting  the  living  part  of 
the  graft  (the  cambium  layer,  liber,  and 
bark).  The  juxtaposition  of  a  correspond- 
ing section  of  the  scion  on  the  stock 
modifies  its  natural  destination. 

The  wood  has  nothing  whatever  to  do 
with  the  production  of  healing  tissue;  its 
action  is  nil,  and  it  is  never  subjected  to 
cellular  alteratives.  But  all  parts  of  the 
bark  (liber),  the  cells  uniting  the  medul- 
lary rays  to  the  fibro-vascular  bundles,  the 
layers  of  medullary  rays,  the  cells  which 
permeate  the  sieve  tubes  of  the  liber,  the 
Fig  sieve  tubes  themselves,  the  cambium  layer 

Callus  or  Knitting  Tissue  (the  libriform  fibres  and  exterior  layer  of 

developed  on  a  scion.  <  ,  x  M  ,. 

cork  excepted),  contribute  to  its  formation. 
But  the  principal  part  in  the  formation  of  callus  devolves 
on  the  cambium  layer.  The  mechanism  of  its  formation  is 
as  follows : — 

The  cells  in  immediate  contact  with  the  surface  of  the 
section  belonging  to  the  parts  named  become  more  active, 
subdivide,  multiply,  and  become  elongated  in  a  direc- 
tion approximately  perpendicular  to  the  surface  of  the  cut. 
The .  liber  cells  and  the  soft  liber  become  transformed  into 
soft,  thin,  and  non-lignified  cells ;  they  subdivide  and  mul- 
tiply, and  reunite  with  those  produced  with  the  activity  of 
the  cambium  layer,  and  constitute  the  layer  or  pad  of  heal- 
ing tissue.  Later  on  the  exterior  cells  of  the  callus  become 


GRAFTING    AND    NURSERIES.  211 

transformed  into  cork,  and,  in  one  or  more  layers,  form  a 
corky  protective  envelope,  more  or  less  resistant,  com- 
pletely surrounding  each  protuberance,  and  generally  unite 
with  the  corky  layers  of  the  cane. 

On  the  upper  section  of  the  stock  the  same  phenomena 
occur,  but  are  not  so  apparent,  and  appear  much  later.  The 
reason  of  this  is  that  the  cane  has  no  tendency  to  protect 
wounds  on  its  upper  extremity.  The  same  applies  to  the 
whole  vine.  The  exposed  section  made  on  a  cane  when 
pruning  never  gets  covered  with  callus,  the  surface  of  the 
cut  dries  up  for  a  variable  length,  its  channels  get  blocked 
with  gum,  etc.,  but  the  living  cells  do  not  form  any  cork 
or  other  tissue.  Every  one  has  seen  that  cuttings  stratified 
in  cool  sand  or  earth  form  callus  excrescences  at  their 
base ;  it  is  seldom  that  there  is  any  at  the  top.  It  is  only 
when  placed  in  contact  with  another  section  that  the  heal- 
ing tissue  is  produced  more  abundantly.  In  all  cases  it 
is  produced  in  the  same  manner  as  on  the  scion,  or  on  the 
base  of  the  cutting,  and  at  the  expense  of  the  same  cellular 
layers. 

If  an  excision  be  made  on  the  side  of  a  cane,  the  knitting 
tissue  at  first  forms  on  the  upper  part  of  the  excision,  then 
on  the  sides,  and  finally  lower  part;  it  is  formed  in  greater 
abundance  on  the  part  of  the  excision  looking  downwards, 
following  the  sides,  and  later  on  with  more  difficulty  forms 
on  the  part  looking  upwards. 

A  longitudinal  cleft  from  the  top  downwards,  on  a  vine- 
cutting  squarely  cut  off  (such  as  is  prepared  for  an  English 
cleft  graft),  forms  knitting  tissue  on  the  lateral  sides,  but 
none,  or  scarcely  any,  on  the  transverse  section  from  which 
the  cleft  starts.  On  the  oblique  section  of  the  splice  of  a 
stock  prepared  for  the  whip-tongue  graft,  the  knitting  tissue 
seems  to  form  with  as  much  difficulty  as  on  a  transverse  section 

Finally,  the  knitting  tissue  forms  with  greater  ease  and  in 
greater  abundance  near  the  node  than  on  the  internode. 

These  protuberances  of  healing  tissue  knit  when  brought 
in  contact  with  each  other,  by  the  juxtaposition  of  the  sections 
of  stock  and  scion.  The  younger  they  are  when  brought  in 
contact,  that  is  to  say  the  less  suberfied  the  external  cells 
are,  the  more  perfectly  the  knitting  takes  place.  It  results 
from  this  that  the  two  sections  must  be  brought  as  close 
together  as  possible.  The  cells  directly  produced  by  the 
multiplicalion  of  the  generative  layers  knit.  One  of  their 


212  AMERICAN    VINES. 

layers  is  transformed  into  a  generative  layer,  knitting  with 
the  generative  layer  of  the  scion.  From  this  moment  the 
whole  plant  grows  normally  above,  below,  and  at  the  knitting 
point;  and  wood  inside,  liber  outside,  are  formed  in  the 
normal  way.  The  cells  produced  by  the  other  regions  of  the 
liber  and  bark  knit  also,  and  become  transformed,  so  as  to  re- 
constitute the  tissue  from  which  they  were  derived. 

If  the  pads  of  callus  are  only  brought  in  contact  when 
older,  the  knitting  takes  place  under  unfavorable  conditions ; 
it  takes  place,  however,  in  the  above-described  manner,  but 
only  after  the  external  layers  of  corky  cells  have  become  trans- 
formed and  regenerated. 

The  tissues  resulting  from  the  new  generative  layer  get 
differentiated,  so  as  to  form  fibro-vascular  bundles,  or 
medullary  rays,  etc.,  corresponding  to  those  of  the  stock. 
However,  more  or  less  numerous  anastomoses,  arranged  in 
the  form  of  entangled  network,  are  produced  at  the  knitting 
point.  The  channels  of  the  wood  and  liber,  newly  formed  at 
the  joint,  are  therefore  in  direct  communication  with  those 
of  stock  and  scion ;  the  circulation  of  the  sap  takes  place  in 
almost  the  same  manner  as  in  a  non-grafted  plant. 

If  layers  of  the  bark  other  than  the  generative  layers  inter- 
vene in  the  formation  of  the  joint,  the  part  the  latter  play  is 
by  far  the  most  important.  The  generative  layers  must  exist 
in  the  knitting  tissue  to  form  the  wood  inside,  which  will 
support  the  stem  and  liber  outside.  The  joints  in  which  the 
liber  alone  knits  (this  sometimes  happens),  are  of  only 
temporary  duration,  unless  a  generative  layer  forms  to  join 
the  generative  layers  of  stock  and  scion  together.  We 
know,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  that  every  year  the  liber  of  the 
preceding  year  exfoliates,  and  becomes  detached  from  the 
cane  in  thongs,  more  or  less  thick,  constituting  what  vine- 
growers  commonly  call  bark. 

Such  is,  roughly,  the  mechanism  of  knitting. 

In  all  that  precedes,  we  have  assumed  that  the  stock  was 
a  portion  of  cane  more  ,or  less  old.  Roots,  or  portion  of  root, 
if  large  enough,  may  also  be  used.  Large  vine  roots  have 
(with  the  exception  of  a  few  liber  fibres)  practically  the 
same  structure  as  a  two  or  three  years'  old  cane.  The  knitting 
therefore  takes  place  in  the  same  manner. 

The  healing  or  knitting  tissue  is  not  produced  as  readily 
by  all  varieties,  whether  used  as  stock  or  scion.  This  also 
applies  to  many  other  plants.  Some  produce  no  or  very 


GRAFTING   AND    NURSERIES.  213, 

little  callus ;  others  produce  it  in  great  abundance.  The 
same  facts  have  been  observed  with  different  varieties  of 
vines;  some,  and  these  give  the  greater  percentage  of  takes 
when  grafted,  produce  callus  freely  and  abundantly  (Ber- 
landieri,  Cinerea,  Rupestris  du  Lot,  Vialla,  Cabernet- 
Sauvignon)  ;  others  (Solonis,  Folle-blanche)  always  produce 
it  slowly,  and  in  small  quantity;  the  latter  evidently  do  not 
knit  as  free  or  as  easily. 

But,  independently  of  the  nature  of  each  variety,  the  for- 
mation of  the  knitting  tissue  also  depends  on  the  influence 
of  certain  external  circumstances.  According  to  Millardet, 
it  is  produced  more  freely  and  in  greater  abundance  at  a 
temperature  of  20°  C.  According  to  recent  researches  bv 
Gouirand,  it  is  between  25°  and  35°  C. ;  above  35°  C.  the 
graft  suffers.  Between  15°  and  20°  C.  the  formation  of  callus 
is  very  slow.  In  short,  what  is  required  is  a  fairly  high 
and,  above  all,  even  temperature.  This  explains  why  scions 
stratified  in  light  warm  soil,  deep  enough  for  the  temperature 
to  be  subject  to  only  slight  fluctuations,  bear  the  largest  pads 
of  callus. 

The  degree  of  humidity  of  the  soil  has  a  -very  marked 
influence.  If  cuttings,  or  even  scions,  have  their  lower 
extremities  immersed  in  water,  no  knitting  tissue  will  ever 
form.  Scions  stratified  in  sand,  kept  very  damp  by  frequent 
watering,  will  develop  buds,  but  no  or  very  little  callus  will 
form.  This  frequently  happens  when  grafted  cuttings  are 
stratified  in  too  damp  moss.  In  almost  dry  but  fresh  sand, 
on  the  contrary,  enormous  pads  ,of  callus  develop  rapidly. 
Excessive  humidity  around  the  joint  prevents  the  formation 
of  knitting  tissue;  and  it  is  in  soils  containing  from  5  to  10 
per  cent.  ,of  water  that  it  is  most  easily  formed. 

On  the  other  hand,  aeration  considerably  accelerates  its 
development.  The  cells  in  course  of  rapid  growth  respire 
abundantly,  they  therefore  require  well  aerated  surroundings, 
rich  in  oxygen.  This  explains  why  cuttings  buried  deeply 
in  compact  soil  do  not  form  any  callus  at  their  base,  and 
why  grafted  cuttings  planted  in  stiff  soils  do  not  succeed 
well.  When  the  joint  of  a  newly-made  graft  is  enclosed  in 
an  indiarubber  tube,  preventing  access  of  air,  the  scion 
sometimes  grows  for  a  long  while,  although  no  knitting  tis- 
sue is  produced. 

(b)  Effects  of  Grafting. — "Affinity." — Connection  being 
established  between  the  vascular  bundles  of  stock  and  scion, 


-214  AMERICAN    VINES. 

let  us  try  to  explain  what  then  takes  place.  In  what  way 
will  the  scion  be  affected  by  roots  that  are  not  its  own,  and 
in  what  way  will  the  stock  be  affected  by  shoots  and  leaves 
foreign  to  it  ? 

In  the  majority  of  cases  we  notice  (except,  however,  when 
stock  and  scion  belong  to  the  same  variety)  an  almost  con- 
stant weakening  of  the  scion.  We  also  notice  (and  more  so 
for  cepages  where  the  weakening  is  more  marked)  an 
increased  fructification,  a  greater  number  of  closer  set  grapes 
with  larger  berries,  more  juicy  and  frequently  richer  in  sac- 
charine matter,  an  earlier  ripening,  (only  a  slight  non-setting 
if  any,  a  diminution  in  the  vigour  of  the  root  system,  and  a 
greater  sensitiveness  to  phylloxera  and  chlorosis;  finally,  we 
frequently  notice  the  formation  of  a  voluminous  pad  of  knitting- 
tissue  at  the  joint. 

Lucien  Daniel  noticed  still  more  accentuated  effects  with 
other  plants.  "  The  stock  influences  the  scion  and  the  scion 
influences  the  stock  in  such  a  way  as  to  modify  in  a  recipro- 
cating manner  their  physiological  properties  and  anatomical 
structure."  This  is,  however,  -very  rare.  Strasburger  pointed 
out  the  passage  of  atropine  from  scion  to  stock  in  a  graft  of 
belladonna  (Atrophia)  on  potato  (Solanum  tuberosum). 
Daniel  also  noticed  changes  of  taste  due  to  grafting.  The 
most  striking  example  of  this  is  the  Milan  cabbage  which, 
when  grafted  on  the  turnip  cabbage,  acquires  a  decided 
turnip  taste.  We  also  know  that  cherries  differ  in  taste 
according  to  whether  they  are  grafted  on  Mahaleb  or  wild 
cherry.  Finally,  quite  recently,  according  to  a  communica- 
tion made  to  the  National  Agricultural  Society  (France),  a 
horticulturist  has  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  new  variety  of 
potato  by  grafting.  This  experiment  was  made  with  the 
Richter  Imperator  as  stock  and  other  varieties  as  scions. 
The  tubers  of  the  Rithter  Imperator  produced  under  these 
circumstances  were  smaller  than  those  produced  from  the 
same  plant  not  grafted;  but  after  two  or  three  generations 
of  repeated  sowings  they  attained  satisfactory  dimensions, 
retaining  a  taste  quite  different  to  those  of  Richter. 

This  instance  shows  that  grafting  may  be  used  in  order  to 
obtain  new  varieties.  L.  Daniel  only  lately  enriched  agri- 
culture with  a  new  variety  of  forage  cabbage  by  this  method. 
To  attain  this  result  he  started  from  the  principle,  established 
by  him,  that  seeds  furnished  by  scions  grafted  on  stocks  of 
other  varieties  often  gave  rise  to  plants  which  participate,  in 


GRAFTING   AND    NURSERIES.  215 

a  greater  or  lesser  degree,  of  the  characteristics  of  stock  and 
scion. 

Grafting  would,  therefore,  seem  to  have  in  some  cases  an 
action  similar  to  that  of  hybridization.  These  facts  are, 
nevertheless,  contradicted  by  Warming.  With  -vines,  how- 
ever, no  action  of  this  kind  has  ever  been  observed.  Berries 
of  vines  grafted  with  Labrusca,  Clinton,  Taylor,  etc.,  have  the 
same  taste  as  if  they  were  grafted  on  Jacquez,  or  on  their 
own  roots,  or  even  not  grafted  at  all. 

The  effects  of  grafting  are  the  same  as  those  of  the 
annular  incision.  We  know  that  trees  or  branches  sub- 
mitted to  this  operation  become  more  fertile,  set  better,  and 
bear  larger  fruit,  ripening  earlier,  than  branches  not  sub- 
mitted to  this  operation.  This  induced  some  agriculturists 
to  think  that  the  mode  of  action  was  similar.  In  reality 
it  is  not.  Annular  incision  only  acts  as  long  as  the  tissues 
are  not  knitted;  it  only  increases  the  fertility  while  the 
communication  between  the  tissues  of  the  bark  of  the  branch 
is  interrupted.  But  directly  those  tissues  knit  and  the 
liber  at  the  top  of  the  incision  reaches  that  of  the  bottom,  the 
effect  of  the  incision  disappears ;  the  branch  ceases  to 
be  more  fertile,  or  to  give  sweeter  fruit,  ripening  earlier;  in 
fact,  the  branch  resumes  its  normal  functions.  Nothing  of 
the  kind  happens  with  grafts,  except,  perhaps,  during  the 
first  or  second  year.  As  long  as  the  knitting  is  incomplete, 
the  effects  may  be  compared  to  those  of  a  partial  annular 
incision  or,  better,  to  those  of  any  wound.  But  once  the 
knitting  is  completed,  once  all  the  tissues  of  the  scion  are  in 
direct  communication  with  those  of  the  stock,  there  is  no 
further  similarity  between  grafting  and  the  annular  in- 
cision. 

We  are  of  opinion  that  this  process  operates  in  a  different 
manner.  The  effects  of  grafting  do  not  result  from 
mechanical  action ;  they  are  not  due  to  the  operation  itself, 
but  they  are  a  consequence  of  the  new  conditions  under  which 
the  grafted  plant  has  to  develop;  and,  therefore,  the  cause  is 
rather  of  a  physiological  order. 

There  seems  to  exist,  if  we  may  so  express  it,  perfect  har- 
mony between  the  different  organs  of  a  plant.  Each  of  them 
contribute  to  the  development  of  the  others  under  the  best 
possible  conditions.  Grafting  breaks  this  harmony.  The 
new  stem  works  under  conditions  different  to  that  of  the 
stem  it  has  substituted ;  the  matters  it  elaborates  do  not 


2l6 


AMERICAN    VINES. 


altogether  suit  the  stock,  which,  being  therefore  placed 
under  unfavorable  conditions,  develops  less,  suffers,  and 
becomes  weaker. *  The  disturbances  manifested  after  grafting 
are,,  therefore,  the  result  of  the  internal  or  external  indi- 
vidual physiological  differences  existing  between  stock  and 
scion.  These  disturbances  can  only  be  noticed  in  varieties 
differing  from  each  other,  but  never  occur  in  the  case  of  a 
variety  grafted  on  its  own  roots.  The  Folle-blanche, 
grafted  on  its  own  roots  in  difficult  soils,  behaves 
exactly  as  if  ungrafted;  it  is  not  more  affected  by 
chlorosis,  its  development  and  fructification  are  identical. 
Therefore,  the  greater  the  analogy  existing  between  the 
functions  of  stock  and  scion  and  their  mode  of  living,  the^ 
less  marked  will  the  effects  of  grafting  be.  We  have  seen 
that  European  varieties  grafted  on  the  species  of  Musca- 
dinia  are  successful,  but  that,  grafted  on  Ampelopsis  or 
Cissus,  they  die  soon  after  knitting.  With  Riparia,  etc.,  the 
physiological  functions  of  which  are  so  different  to  those  of 
European  vines,  these  phenomena  are  still  very  marked ; 
they  are  less  marked  with  other  stocks  which,  for  some 
reason  or  other,  are  more  closely  related  to  Vinifera,  and  this 
explains  why  these  disturbances  are  greatly  attenuated  with 
Franco-American  graft-bearers. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  define  exactly  the  differences  of 
affinity  ,of  various  American  stocks  for  a  given  scion,  as  also 
to  ascertain  if  the  differences  of  vegetation  are  due  to  pro- 


*  Lucien  Daniel  (Comptes  Rendus,  aist  September,  1891)  arrives  at  similar 
•conclusions  for  plants  other  than  vines: 

"It  seems  strange  to  see  plants  similarly  closely  related  to  the  genus  Tarax- 
acum, such  as  Barkansia,  Lettuce,  and  Chicory,  behave  differently;  the  first 
grafting  successfully,  the  two  other  knitting  well,  but  dying  if  their  adventive 
roots  are  removed. 

"Anatomical  studies  may  explain  this  anomaly.  The  roots  of  the  Taraxa- 
cum are  gorged  with  inuline;  this  substance  passes  through  the  membranes  of 
the  Barkansia,  which  assimilates  it,  as  may  be  ascertained  by  microscopical 
-examination  of  tran verse  and  longitudinal  sections  of  the  graft;  both  stock  and 
scion  contain  inuline. 

"But  inuline  does  not  penetrate  the  scions  of  Lettuce  or  Chicory;  it  has 
never  been  detected  in  them.  Therefore,  they  wither  or  die,  if  supplementary 
food  is  not  given  to  them  through  their  adventive  roots.  This  is'  not  an  isolated 
case.  We  may  understand  that  the  membranes  of  some  scions  are  imperme- 
able to  certain  matters  elaborated  by  the  stock,  in  the  same  way  as  Lettuce  and 
•Chicory  are  _  impermeable  to  inuline.  The  failure  of  many  grafts  may  thus  be 
easily  explained  by  a  phenomenon  of  insufficient  nutrition,  without  having 
recourse  to  problematic  affinities  between  genera  and  species. ' ' 

These  remarks  by  Daniel  apply  still  more  forcibly  to  the  vine  and  its  grafts. 
It  is  because  the  matters  elaborated  by  the  scion  cannot  be  assimilated  by  the 
stock  that  the'  latter  remain  weak,  and  eventually  its  weakness  affects  the 
whole  plant.  But  is  it  simply  because  the  membranes  of  the  stock  do  not  allow 
these  substances  to  pass  through  that  they  remain  unassimilated?  If  it  is  so, 
it  is  apparent  that  before  the  grafting  these  substances  were  unnecessary  to  the 
^stock,  and  that  afterwards  they  become  inimical  to  its  development. 


GRAFTING   AND    NURSERIES.  21 7 

parties  of  adaptation  to  soil  rather  than  reciprocal  action 
between  stock  and  scion.  We  can  ascertain  it  by  studying 
the  chemical  composition  of  grafted  -vines.  Those  suffering 
least  from  grafting  are  evidently  those  the  composition  of 
which  is  closest  to  that  of  the  same  vines  ungrafted.  The 
chemical  composition  of  Folle-blanche  grafted  on  its  own 
roots  and  of  the  same  vine  ungrafted  is  identical.  There  is 
more  nitrogen  and  less  starch  above  than  below  the  joint, 
and  similarly  in  the  ungrafted  vine  there  is  more  nitrogen 
and  less  starch  above  than  below  the  collar.  With  Euro- 
pean vines  grafted  on  pure  American  stock  the  phenomena 
is  just  the  reverse.  Grafted  Franco-Americans  have  an 
identical  chemical  composition  to  Vinifera  grafted  on  their 
own  roots  or  ungrafted.  This  is  an  indirect  proof  of  their 
great  affinity  to  European  vines. 

The  various  American  stocks  in  use  show  considerable 
differences  of  "  affinity "  with  .varieties  of  V.  Vinifera. 
These  differences  have  been  studied  for  each  of  them.  Let 
us  remind  that  V.  Labrusca  varieties  have  the  greatest 
affinity  to  European  vines.  The  Vialla,  Taylor,  Noah,  York- 
Madeira,  provided  their  resistance  to  phylloxera  and  adapta- 
tion to  soil  are  not  taken  into  consideration,  associate  well 
with  European  varieties,  and  do  not  appear  to  suffer  from 
grafting;  Labrusca  and  Vinifera  present,  in  fact,  great 
analogy  in  their  development. 

But  the  diverse  European  varieties  do  not  all  behave  in 
the  same  manner  with  a  given  American  stock ;  some  are  very 
vigorous,  others  remain  weak.  Table  No.  I  clearly  indicates 
these  differences. 

The  figures  given  to  each  graft-bearer  must  be  read  verti- 
cally; they  only  indicate  in  what  manner  the  various  Euro- 
pean varieties  experimented  upon  behave  in  regard  to  a 
given  graft-bearer;  they  do  not  allow  comparisons  to  be 
made  between  the  affinities  of  different  graft-bearers,  as  the 
growth  of  the  latter,  represented  by  the  figures,  is  not  only 
the  result  of  their  affinity  with  the  scions  they  bear,  but  also 
the  effects  of  phylloxera  and  influence  of  soil. 

Tables  Nos.  2,  3,  and  4,  condensed  in  tables  Nos.  5  and  6, 
which  were  communicated  by  Professor  E.  Durand,  of  the 
School  of  Agriculture,  Montpellier,  indicate  the  comparative 
differences  of  fructification  of  two  French  vines,  Aramon  and 
Carignane,  when  grafted  on  various  American  stocks.  Table 
No.  7  shows  the  comparative  circumferences  of  stock  and 


218 


AMERICAN    VINES. 


scion.  We  will  not  insist  on  these  differences,  as  the  figures 
show  them  clearly,  but  point  out,  however,  that  grafts  on 
Berlandieri  are  the  most  fructiferous,  and  that  this  cepage 
does  not  show  any  difference  in  diameter  between  stock  and 
scion. 


TABLE  No.  1. 


EXPERIMENTS  ON  GRAFTING  AFFINITY,  MADE  AT  THE 
SCHOOL    OF    AGRICULTURE,    MONTPELLIER. 

(Age  of  stock  15^  years.     Age  of  scion  14  years.) 


SCIONS. 


Aramon       ... .. , 

Carignane 

Cinsaut 

Alicante-Bouschet 

Petit-Bouschet 

Clairette 

Folle-blanohe 

Pinot         ^.; ;',:'; 

Pulsard 

Cabernet  franc 

Cabernet  Sauvignon 

Gamay          .  . 

Mataro 

Shiraz 

Grenache 

Bobal 

Terret-Bouschet 


GRAFTING  STOCKS 


Riparia 
glabrous. 

Riparia 
tomentose. 

Clinton. 

Solonis. 

i 

> 

Rupestris. 

A 
13 
> 

vi 
£ 

& 

Elvira. 

12 

17 

8 

20 

5 

19 

13 

20 

8 

17 

18 

9 

16 

7 

20 

16 

20 

9 

9 

17 

12 

15 

3 

19 

12 

18 

7 

17 

16 

12 

14 

7   20 

15 

20 

9 

18 

20 

15 

20 

6   20 

16 

19 

11 

20 

20 

11 

12 

13  :  20 

14 

18 

10 

17 

18 

10 

18 

8   19 

18 

20 

15 

13 

18 

12 

19 

9 

14 

17 

16 

5 

18 

19 

14 

14 

11 

15 

15 

13 

3 

20 

20 

14 

20 

17 

20 

20 

18 

11 

20 

20 

9 

18 

18 

20 

13 

20 

7 

15 

14 

9 

16 

2  i  16 

14 

14 

5 

12 

15 

8 

15 

4 

16 

16 

16 

2 

20 

20 

14 

20 

13 

18 

16 

20 

11 

19 

20 

16 

17 

11 

20 

16 

19 

12 

18 

20 

18 

20 

10 

20 

15 

20 

8 

14 

15 

10 

15 

6 

20 

14 

16 

12 

GRAFTING   AND    NURSERIES, 


§0 


.220 


AMERICAN    VINES. 


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GRAFTING    AND    NURSERIES. 


221 


TABLE  No.  4. 


ARAMON  AND  CARIGNANE  GRAFTS,  MADE  AT  LAS  SORRES, 
IN  1890  AND  1891,  ON  VARIOUS  AMERICAN  VINES  PLANTED 
IN  1889. 

(Comparative  Weights  of  Grapes  per  Vine.) 


GRAFTING  STOCK. 

ARAMON. 

CARIGNANE. 

1893- 

1894. 

1895. 

1893. 

1894 

1896. 

Kilos.* 

Kilos. 

Kilos. 

Kilos. 

Kilos. 

Kilos. 

V.  Berlandieri 
Riparia  Gloire 
Rupestris  Martin  .  . 

5.60 
5.00 
4.40 

6.20 
5.10 
6.20 

5.60 
3.50 
3  40 

5.80 
5  00 
2  80 

5.60 
4.80 
4.60 

2.00 
1.50 
1.00 

*  i  kilo=2   2.  2  Ibs. 


TABLE  No.  5 


COMPARATIVE    FRUCTIFICATION    OF    BERLANDIERI    AND 
OTHER  GRAFTING  STOCKS. 


ARAMON. 

CARIGNANE. 

GRAFTING  STOCK. 

Total 

Average 

Total 

Average 

for  12  years 
for  one  Vine. 

for  12  years 
for  one  Vine. 

for  12  years 
for  one  Vine. 

for  12  years 
for  one  Vine. 

| 

Kilos. 

Kilos. 

Kilos. 

Kilos. 

Berlandieri 

96.35 

8.03 

94.00 

7.83 

Riparia  de  Las  Sorres 

83.67 

6.95 

62.90 

5.24 

Riparia  des  .  Pallieres 

78.91 

6.57 

74.55 

6.21 

Solonis    .  .           .  k 

73.30 

6.19 

61.12 

5.09 

Jacquez               .  i  .  . 
Vialla     

52.97 
34  60 

4.41 

2.88 

42.66 
35.30 

3.55 
2.94 

222 


AMERICAN    VINES. 


TABLE  No.  6. 


COMPARATIVE  FRUCTIFICATION  OF  BERLANDIERI, 
RIPARIA  GLOIRE,  AND   RUPESTRIS  MARTIN. 


Graf  ting-  Stock. 

Aramon. 

Carignane. 

Total  for 
3  years  for  one 
vine. 

Average  for 
3  years  for  one 
vine. 

Total  for 
3  years  for  one 
vine. 

Average  for 
3  years  for  one 
vine. 

Berlandieri 
Riparia  Gloire  .  . 
Rupestris  Martin 

Kilos. 

15.40 
13.60 
14.00  s 

Kilos. 
5.13 
4.53 
4.66 

Kilos. 

13.40 
11.30 
8.40 

Kilos. 
4.46 
3.76 
2.80 

TABLE  No    7. 


COMPARATIVE  CIRCUMFERENCES  OF  THE  SCION  AND 
STOCK  WITH  VARIOUS  GRAFTING-STOCKS. 


Grafting-Stock. 


Grafts  of  16  years — 

Berlandieri 
Riparia  des  Failures 
Riparia  de  Las  Sorres 
Riparia  Bazille 

Grafts  of  6  years — 

Berlandieri 
Riparia  Gloiie 
Rupestris  Martin 


Aramon. 

Aramon. 

Carignane. 

Carignane. 

Stock. 

Scion. 

Stock. 

Scion. 

Stock. 

Scion. 

Stock. 

Scion  , 

Cm* 

Cm. 

Cm. 

Cm. 

Cm. 

Cm. 

Cm. 

Cm. 

30.0 
15.5 
17.0 

26.5 
21.0 
18.5 
11.0 

17.5 

16.0 

18.0 
12.5 
15.0 
11.0 

20.0 
15.0 
15.0 
14  0 

— 

— 

11.5 
12.5 
11.5 

11.5 
11.7 
12.5 

12.5 
9.0 
10.5 

12.5 
10.0 
12.5 

15.0 
9.5 

12.0 

14.5 
13.0 
12.5 

14.5 
8.0 
14.0 

14.0 
14.5 
13*0 

i  inch=2.53  centimetres,     i  centimetre=o  .30  inch. 


GRAFTING   AND    NURSERIES.  223 

Besides  the  indications  given  in  the  above  tables,  every 
grower  may  gather  others  as  the  result  of  personal  experi- 
ence. 

In  the  south  of  France,  the  Cinsaut  grafted  on  Riparia 
does  not  grow  well,  and  remains  weak;  Carignane  grows 
better  than  Aramon,  on  Jacquez  or  Riparia.  Aramon 
has  a  medium  affinity  for  American  stock;  on  Riparia  it 
leaves  nothing  to  be  desired.  Clairette  is  one  of  the  least 
affected  by  grafting;  it  remains  green  in  calcareous  soils 
where  other  varieties  die  from  chlorosis,  it  has  even  been 
known  to  attenuate  the  chlorosis  of  Herbemont  when  grafted 
on  it.  This  may  be  so,  and  yet  not  be  the  result  of  the 
affinity  for  scion  stock.  The  Alicante-Bouschet,  as  well  as 
the  Alicante,  from  which  it  is  derived,  do  not  live  long  when 
grafted.  In  this  respect  the  Petit-Bouschet  is  superior. 
The  Espar  (Mataro)  grows  poorly  when  grafted,  especially 
if  on  Riparia;  it  does  better  on  Rupestris.  It  is  very 
sensitive  to  chlorosis  in  calcareous  soils,  and  in  the 
Charentes,  where  it  was  extensively  cultivated,  it  had  to  be 
discarded  from  all  soils  liable  to  cause  chlorosis.  Grenache 
has  a  medium  affinity.  The  Terrets  (Terret  noir,  Terret 
gris,  Terret-Bouschet)  are  rather  weak  and  sensitive  to 
chlorosis  when  grafted.  The  Aramon-Teinturier-Bouschet 
is  still  poorer,  and  rapidly  becomes  stunted.  The  Morrastel 
is  not  much  affected  by  grafting.  The  white  Ugni  or  Saint- 
Emilion  of  the  Charentes  remains  vigorous,  but  is  affected 
by  chlorosis  to  the  same  extent  as  Folle-blanche.  The 
Muscats,  as  also  Colombeau  or  Saint-Pierre,  the  Picque- 
pouls,  and  Grand  Noir  de  la  Calmette  do  well  when  grafted. 

The  Cabernet-Sauvignon  remains  vigorous  when  grafted 
although  rather  sensitive  to  chlorosis.  This  also  applies  to 
Cabernet-Franc,  Carmenere,  Verdot,  and  Saint-Macaire. 
Malbec  is  more  sensitive  to  chlorosis  than  Cabernet. 

Merlot  is  little  affected  by  chlorosis ;  it  may  even  be  said 
to  improve  the  growth  of  the  stock,  but  this  fact  has  not 
been  sufficiently  proved.  Grafted  on  Vialla,  it  remains 
green  in  soils  where  the  Vialla  itself  is  affected  by  chlorosis. 
In  the  Saint-Emilionnais  district,  it  is  cultivated  in  calcareous 
soils  where  Cabernet  and  Malbec  suffer  from  chlorosis.  The 
Castets  grafted  on  Riparia  leave  much  to  be  desired.  At 
first  they  develop  normally,  but  soon  become  stunted  with 
short-jointed  canes  and  poorly  developed  jagged  leaves; 
This  does  not  occur  in  deep,  rich  soils  suitable  to  Riparia; 


224  AMERICAN    VINES. 

but  is  frequently  noticed  in  poor  calcareous  soil,  especially 
in  spring  time,  and  results  in  complete  non-setting.  In 
summer  the  vegetation  becomes  normal  again,  so  that 
grafted  Castets  have,  at  the  end  of  summer,  a  peculiar  ap- 
pearance ;  the  base  of  the  canes  having  short  internodes  and 
jagged  leaves,  the  top  bearing  leaves  and  internodes  nor- 
mally developed.  The  Grappu  does  well  on  Riparia  and 
Jacquez.  According  to  Girard,  the  Bequignol  and  Quesan 
must  be  placed  in  the  first  rank.  Sauvignon  and  Musca- 
delle  do  well  on  American  stock ;  Semillion  is  not  so  satis- 
factory. 

Folle-blanche  when  grafted  has  a  medium  growth  and 
suffers  slightly  from  the  operation,  less,  however,  than  Balzac 
or  Mataro;  planted  side  by  side  with  Merlot  in  the 
same  soil  it  becomes  yellow,  while  the  latter  remains  green. 
The  white  Jurancon  turjis  even  more  yellow,  and  has  little 
vigour.  The  Saint-Emilion  is  vigorous,  and  is  affected  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  Folle.  The  Blanc-Rame  grows  well 
when  grafted.  The  Blanc-Limouzin  is  very  vigorous  and 
not  -very  subject  to  chlorosis;  it  does  badly  on  Solonis, 
becoming  stunted  in  spring  time  like  Castets.  The  Saint- 
Pierre  remains  vigorous,  and  is  little  affected  by  chlorosis. 
Colombard  does  not  turn  as  yellow  as  Folle,  and  becomes 
green  again  sooner ;  it  is  also  more  vigorous,  may  be  culti- 
vated in  poor  soils,  and  does  well  on  Riparia.  The  Petit 
Noir  is  rather  less  vigorous,  and  turns  yellow  after  grafting. 
Mataro  is  very  liable  to  chlorosis.  The  Saint-Rabier  is  a 
little  less  vigorous  than  Malbec. 

The  Muscadet  of  the  Loire-Inferieure  grows  regularly,  and 
bears  well  on  Solonis,  Jacquez,  and  Riparia,  turning  only 
slightly  yellow.  The  white  Chenin  and  black  Chenin  are  good 
grafts. 

The  Pinot  is  more  sensitive  to  chlorosis  than  Camay. 
The  black  Camay  non-grafted  has  little  vigour,  but  is  not 
subject  to  chlorosis.  The  white  Camay  always  remains 
green.  The  Pulsard  is  rather  less  vigorous  when  grafted. 
The  Enfarine  remains  -vigorous  and  green. 

The  Syrah  (Shiraz)  grows  luxuriantly  when  grafted.  It 
is  one  of  the  vines  that  is  least  affected  by  grafting  and 
does  well  on  Riparia.  The  Mondeuse  grows  well  when  grafted, 
but  is  rather  liable  to  chlorosis.  Etraire,  Persan,  Durif, 
and  Corbeau  do  well  on  American  stock,  as  also  the  Rous- 
sanne.  Marsanne,  black  Mornin,  and  Viognier,  are  not  so 


GRAFTING    AND    NURSERIES. 


22' 


satisfactory.  Among  vines  not  impaired  by  grafting  may  be 
mentioned  Rosaki,  Sultanieh,  Sainte-Marie,  etc. 

If  weakening  of  the  vine,  as  the  result  of  grafting,  is  pro- 
duced in  most  cases,  occasionally  it  has  the  opposite  effect 
We  may  see  weak  chlorosed  vines  become  vigorous  after 
grafting.  The  Herbemont,  which  so  quickly  turns  yellow  in 
calcareous  soils,  remains  green  when  grafted  with  Clairette; 
the  Merlot  on  Vialla,  in  the  calcareous  soils  of  the  Vendee, 
remains  green  and  vigorous,  while  the  Vialla  alone  turns 
yellow  and  become  stunted  in  the  same  soil. 

In  general,  the  graft  increases  the  fertility,  although  it 
reduces  it  in  a  few  particular  instances.  These  facts  may 
be  explained  by  reasons  of  the  same  order  as  those  given 
above,  we  need  not,  therefore,  repeat. 

The  phenomena  that  have  been  recorded  with  regard  to 
the  vine  have  been  observed  to  apply  to  all  fruit  trees.* 

II. SYSTEMS    OF    GRAFTING. 

It  is  scarcely  possible  for  us  to  describe  all  the  different 
systems  of  grafting,  some  of  which  have  been  experimented 
upon  more  or  less,  and  are  very  ingenious  indeed.  Among 


Fig.  94 
Grafting-knife. 


Fig.  95. 
Grafting-bill 


Fig.  96. 

Grafting-bill  with  curved 
blade. 


the  latter,  the  whip-tongue  graft  and  the  English  cleft-graft 
are  the  better  known ;  we  will  limit  this  study  to  them. 


*  See  F.  Sahut  Les  vignes  Americaines;  J.  E.  Planchon,  Conference  sur  le  greffage, 
Bulletin  Soc.  d'Agr.  de  1'Herault.  1870;  Decaisne,  Amateur  dcs  jardins  et  Jardin 
fruitier  du  Museum,  etc.,  etc. 


226 


AMERICAN    VINES. 


(a)   Whip-tongue  Graft. — Stock  and  scion  are  both  spliced 
in  the  same  manner    (Fig.  97)  ;    both    sections    should    have 
perfectly  corresponding  outlines    and    sur- 
faces, therefore  stock  and  scion  should  be 
of  the   same   diameter.     The   stock,   rooted 
or  not,  is  cut  level  at  its  upper  extremity 
as  close  as  possible  to  the  node,  for,  as  we 
have  already   said,   it   is  at  that  point  that 
the    knitting    tissue    is    formed    with    the 
greatest  facility.     The  length  of  the  splice 
depends  on  the  size  of  the  cane.     Generally, 
the    section    is    made    at    an    angle    of    14 
degrees  for  thin  canes,  so  as  to  allow  it  to 
be  long    enough    to    secure    a  strong    grip, 
and    17    degrees    for    stout    canes.     It     is 
usually    made    by    hand    with    a    grafting- 
knife  (Figs.  94  to  98),  the  section  being  cut 
neatly  and  without  bruised  edges.     It  can 
also  be  made  by  means  of  special  machines, 
which  all  have  the  capital  fault  of  requir- 
ing,  like   the   knife,   a   long   apprenticeship 
from  the  operator,  without  greatly  increas- 
ing the  rapidity  of  the  work,  and  generally 
giving  defective  sections    and    bruising   the 
tissues.     When  made  with    the    knife,    the 
sections  must  be  cut    with    one    sweep,    if 
not,  the  section  is  more  or  less  irregular  or 
Fig.  97.  — stock  and  bruised;    concave    must     be     preferred     to 
whi>toS«u?^tf the  convex     surfaces,     for     they     render     the 
assemblage  easier  and    firmer.     The    splice 
once    made,    a    longitudinal    slit    parallel    to    the    fibre     of 
the  wood,  and  6  mm.    (^-inch)    at  least  in  depth,   is  made 
with   the   same   knife.      When   taking   the   blade   out   of   the 
slit,  a   slight   rotary   movement   is   given   to  the   knife   so   as 


Fig.  98. — Preparation  of  Stock  for  the  whip-tongue  graft. 


GRAFTING    AND    NURSERIES. 


227 


to  leave  the  slit  open  and  facilitate  the  insertion  of  the 
tongue.  The  object  is  to  consolidate  the  assemblage,  but 
it  also  facilitates  the  production  of  callus.  For,  as  already 


Fig.  09. 

Sections  of  Stock  and 
Scion. 


Fig.  100. 

Joint  of  whip-tongue 
graft. 


explained,  callus  will  be  produced  in  greater  abundance  on 
a  longitudinal  than  transverse  section.  Further,  the  callus 
first  appears  on  the  inner  walls  of  the  slit. 

The  point  where  the  slit  is  made  has  not  very  great 
importance,  and  the  pith  need  not  enter  into  consideration. 
The  pith,  contrary  to  the  old  belief,  does  not  play  any  part 
in  the  life  of  the  plant;  it  can  be  removed  without  incon- 
venience. But  what  is  more  important  is  that  the 
point  where  the  slit  begins  and  the  point  where  it  ends  be 
at  an  equal  distance  from  the  centre  of  the  section,  so  as  to 
allow  their  exact  juxtaposition  (Fig.  99).  Therefore,  the 
closer  to  the  centre  the  shallower  the  slit  will  be.  If  it  is 
not  made  in  the  way  indicated,  the  adjustment  will  be 
defective ;  if  too  short,  the  sections  could  not  cover  each  other ; 
if  too  long,  the  joint  will  lack  in  strength. 


228 


AMERICAN    VINES. 


The  scion,  with  one  or  two  eyes,  is  cut  in  a  similar 
manner  at  its  base.  To  make  the  joint,  the  tongue  of  the 
scion  is  inserted  in  the  slit  of  the  stock,  the  tongue  of  the 
stock  in  the  slit  of  the  scion,  forcing  a  little,  till  the 
juxtaposition  of  the  two  sections  is  perfect  (Fig.  100),  the 
whole  is  then  firmly  maintained  together  by  means  of  a 
ligature. 

The  whip-tongue  graft  is  that  which  gives  the  best 
knitting;  stock  and  scion  being  cut  exactly  alike  the 
juxtaposition  is  perfect,  and  leaves  no  portion  of  the  section 
exposed  to  the  air,  there  is,  therefore,  no  scar,  and  the 
circulation  of  the  sap  takes  place  almost  in  the  same  manner 
as  in  an  ordinary  cutting.  The  outside  surface  in  this  case 
is  smooth,  and  in  many  cases  it  is  impossible  to  detect,  by 
superficial  examination,  the  point  where  the  graft  was  made. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  the 
whip-tongue  graft  gives  the  best 
knitting,  it  gives  less  takes. 
The  reason  for  this  is,  that  the 
oblique  section  of  the  stock  pro- 
duces callus  with  difficulty,  as 
already  explained ;  the  walls  of 
the  slit  produce  it  in  greater 
abundance  it  is  true,  that  is 
why  it  must  be  made  deeper 
than  is  customary,  that  is  ro 
say,  it  begins  further  from  the 
centre  of  the  section. 

The  "  Champin  Graft''  (Fig. 
101)  is  only  a  modification  of 
the  whip-tongue;  it  is  more 
difficult  to  perform,  it.  gives 
less  satisfactory  knittings,  for 
a  part  of  the  section  is  exposed  to  the  air;  and,  moreover, 
it  facilitates  the  growth  of  roots  on  the  scion. 

The  whip-tongue  graft  can  only  be  used  when  stock  and 
scion  are  equal  in  diameter ;  when  the  stock  is  larger  than 
the  scion,  the  ordinary  cleft-graft  is  used. 

(b)  Ordinary  Cleft-Graft, — The  stock,  always  larger  than 
the  scion  in  diameter,  is  cut  horizontally  with  a  handsaw 
(Fig.  102),  or  with  a  secateur;*  the  section  is  then  freshened 
with  a  grafting  knife.  It  is  then  split,  but  on  the  side 

*  Pruning  shears. 


Fig.  10 1. — Champin  Graft. 


GRAFTING    AND    NURSERIES. 


229 


Fig.    ioj. 
Hand  Saw. 


Fig. 


103. — Wedge-shaped  Scion  for 
ordinary  cleft-graft. 


only;  the  chisel  used  for  this  operation  is  held  with  the 
handle  upwards  and  inwards,  the  blade  downwards  and 
outwards,  it  is  then  struck  with  ta  mallet  so  as  to  obtain 
a  split  3  or  4  centimetres  (i  to  il/2  inches)  in  depth,  which 
is  kept  open  by  means  of  a  small  wedge  inserted  near  the 
centre.  The  prepara- 
tion of  the  scion  is  then  --''  ^  \  y 
proceeded  with. 

The  scion,  which 
should  have  at  least 
two  eyes,  is  cut  wedge- 
shape  (Fig.  103);  the 
two  lateral  sections,  for 
reasons  already  indi- 
cated, must  be  as  close 
as  possible  to  a  node, 
and  form  an  angle,  so 
that  the  whole  of  their 


surface      will      be      in 


Fig.  104. — Ordinary  Cleft -Graft  on  old  Stock. 


230 


AMERICAN    VINES. 


contact   with   the   walls   of   the   slit.      The   generative   layers 

are  made   to   coincide   with   those   of   the   stock    (Fig.    104), 

and  are  then  bound. 

(c)   Double  Cleft-Graft.  —  The  stock  is  prepared  as  above, 

the  slit  is  made  along  the  diameter  with  a  strong  knife 
or  chisel,  and  is  kept  open  by  a  wooden 
wedge  placed  at  the  outer  edge  of  the  slit. 
The  scions  are  cut  in  a  wedge  shape,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  105.  The  lateral  sections 
starting  from  the  same  level  and  inter- 
secting along  the  axis  of  the  cane,  and  not 
outside  the  pith,  if  not  the  contact  of  the 
generative  layers  of  scion  and  stock  will 
not  take  place  throughout  their  length. 

On  large  stocks,  two  parallel  or  per- 
pendicular slits  may  be  made,  in  each  of 
which  two  scions  are  inserted.  The  strike 
is  thus  better  assured.  Again,  when  the 
stock  is  very  large,  the  scions  may  be 
placed  as  shown  in  Fig.  106.  This  is  a 
side  cleft-graft,  the  stock  not  being  split 
along  its  diameter. 

(d)    English    Cleft-Graft.—  The    English 
cleft-graft  is  made  on  stock  of  one  to  two 
years     old,     either     equal     or     smaller     in 
i  diameter  than  the   scion  they  are  to  bear. 

Wedge-shaped  Scion  for  In    the    cleft-graft    above    described    one 


English  Cleft-Graft.       gide      Qf 

stock;  in  the  English  cleft-graft  the  knitting  takes  place 
on  both  sides  and  i  s, 
therefore,  more  perfect. 
The  stock  is  cut  hori- 
zontally, and,  if  neces- 
sary, the  cut  is  freshened 
with  a  knife.  It  is 
split  along  the  axis  to 
a  depth  of  2  or  3  centi- 
metres (24  to  \y\  in.) 
The  scion,  with  one  or 
two  eyes,  is  cut  in  the 
shape  of  a  rather  long 
wedge,  the  two  lateral 

Sections  being  very  Close  Fig.  1  06.—  Double  Cleft-Graft  on  old  Stock. 


/ 

4' 

\ 

';  ! 

)                          /st' 

GRAFTING    AND    NURSERIES. 


231 


to  a  node  and  starting  from  the  same  level;  they  intersect 
exactly  on  the  axis  of  the  cane  (Fig.  105).  The  scion  pre- 
pared in  this  way  is  introduced  in  the  slit  of  the  stock,  kept 
open  by  the  point  of  the  grafting  knife  (Fig.  107). 

Canes  are  not  generally  cylindrical,  but  more  or  less 
flattened.  Consequently,  stock  and  scion  must  be  cut  in  a 
wedge-like  shape  or  split  along  the  larger  diameter.  It  is 


Fig.  107.  Fig.   108. 

English   Cleft-Graft  Showing  the  disposition 
Stock  and  Scion  of  generative  layers 

joined.  on  Stock  and  Scion. 


Figs.   iog  and  no. 

Shouldered  Cleft-Graft 

prepared    with 

grafting-knife. 


in  fact  along  this  diameter  that  the  canes  have  developed 
most,  it  is  there  that  the  generative  layers  are  most  active, 
and,  consequently,  that  knitting  takes  place  most  perfectly. 
As  already  pointed  out,  the  zones  along  which  knitting 
takes  place  must  be  in  perfect  juxtaposition ;  they  are 
parallel  on  the  stock,  they  should,  therefore,  be  parallel  on 
the  scion.  But  the  generative  layers  of  a  scion-cut  wedge 
are  disposed  (Fig.  108)  according  to'  a  parabola  A,  B,  C; 


232  AMERICAN    VINES. 

the  contact  can  only,  therefore,  take  place  at  two  points,  A 
and  B,  and  consequently  the  knitting  is  defective.  There  are 
different  means  of  bringing  the  sides  of  the  scion  parallel  to 
one  another,  and  to  bring  them  into  juxtaposition  for  the  whole 
of  their  length  with  the  generative  layers  of  the  stock. 

ist.  By  using  scions  larger  than  the  stock,  the  contact 
of  the  generative  layers  takes  place,  in  this  case,  nearer  the 
top  of  the  slit,  the  lower  portion  of  the  wedge  slightly  pro- 
truding from  the  slit  in  the  stock;  but  as  the  two  tongues 
are  very  thin  and  separated  only  by  the  pith,  which  has  no 
resistance,  the  binding  brings  them  close  together  inside  the 
slit,  and  so  makes  them  coincide  exactly  with  the  generative 
layers  of  the  stock. 

2nd.  By  making  the  lateral  section  as  close  as  possible  to 
a  node;  at  this  point  the  dimensions  of  the  canes  used  as 
scions  are  larger,  the  edges  of  the  section  do  not  form  an 
exact  parabola,  and  are  closer  for  the  greater  part  of  their 
length,  at  least,  to  the  parallelism  sought. 

3rd.  By  making  two  shoulders  on  the  scion  (Figs.  109  to 
112),  rendering  the  lateral  section  of  the  wedge  almost 
triangular  in  shape,  and,  therefore,  its  edges  almost  parallel. 
By  combining  these  three  means,  we  may  obtain  an  almost 
perfect  parallelism  of  the  surfaces  brought  in  contact,  and, 
consequently,  a  more  perfect  knitting.  The  shoulders  may 
be  made  with  a  very  narrow-bladed  knife;  they  are  in  this 
case  slightly  rounded  (Figs.  109  and  no)  ;  or,  better,  by 
means  of  special  machines.  Their  object  is  not  only  to 
facilitate  the  knitting  and  strengthen  the  joint,  but  also  to 
diminish  the  extent  of  the  wound  which  always  exists  in  an 
English  cleft-graft  (Figs,  in  to  113). 

The  cleft-graft,  shouldered  or  not,  never  gives  as  perfect 
a  joint  as  the  whip-tongue,  especially  during  the  first  year. 
The  knitting  only  takes  place  along  a  longitudinal  slip  equal 
to  the  thickness  of  the  part  of  the  wedge  inserted  into  the 
stock,  therefore,  the  circulation  of  the  sap  can  only  take 
place  through  that  strip,  and  not  through  the  whole  circum- 
ference (Fig.  113)  ;  on  each  side  are  large  wounds  or  more  or 
less  extended  portions  of  dead  wood,  which  only  become 
completely  healed  a  few  years  after.  This  perhaps  has  not 
very  great  importance  for  fine  growing  vines  grafted  by  the 
English  cleft  system  are  to  be  seen  everywhere.  And,  again, 
if  theoretically  the  whip-tongue  graft  is  perfect,  practically 
it  rarely  attains  that  degree  of  perfection. 


GRAFTING   AND    NURSERIES. 


233 


Actually,  in  all  the  south-west  regions  of  France,  the 
English  cleft-graft  is  made  with  machines;  the  rapidity  of 
the  work  is  greatly 
increased,  and  the 
knitting  is  quite  as 
good.  The  shouldered 
cleft  -  graft  and  the 
aglet  deft-graft  are 
generally  used  ;  the 
latter  seems  to  us  pre- 
ferable. The  scion  is 
cut  as  shown  in  Fig. 
114,  the  upper  extre- 
mity of  the  stock  being 
limited  by  two  oblique 
sections  intersecting 
each  other  along  its 
greater  diameter,  and 
then  split  along  that 
diameter.  The  wedge 
of  the  scion  is  then 
inserted  in  the  slit  of 
the  stock,  the  two 
aglets  exactly  covering 
the  two  oblique  sections  Sh^erli' 

Of    the    Stock,    leaving    no 

f       ,  7% 

portion  of  the  sections 
exposed  to  the  air.  This  is  one  of  the  advantages  of  this 
graft,  which  is  also  stronger  than  the  ordinary  cleft,  the 
aglets  preventing  the  joint  from  becoming  dislocated  in  case 

of    the    binding    or    ligature 
rotting   too   rapidly. 

The  hollo'tved  cleft-  graft 
can  only  be  made  with  a 
special  grafting  machine  ; 
the  sections  are  almost 
always  defective,  clumsy, 
and  bruised  ;  the  scion  is 
cut  in  the  shape  of  a  very 
short  wedge;  the  joint  is 
wanting  in  solidity  and  it  is 

^CUlt     r°    °btain    'I  ^A^A 

1  his  graft  is  now  discarded. 


prepared  with  •  graft- 
ing  machine. 


Should 

joined 


Fig.  II4.-Aglet  Graft,  Stock,  Scion, 

and  Graft  united. 


234 


AMERICAN    VINES. 


Fig.  115.— Saddle  Grafts. 


The  saddle  graft  (Fig.  115)  is  the  reverse  of  the  cleft-graft; 
the    stock    is    cut    wedge    shape;    the  two    oblique    terminal 

sections  form  callus  sparingly 
for  reasons  already  given; 
the  knitting  takes  place 
badly,  and,  in  addition,  the 
scion  developes  many  roots. 

The  dovetail  graft  can  only 
be  made  with  machines,  it 
gives  a  fairly  good  joint,  but 
has  so  far  been  very  little 
used. 

(e)  Binding  and  Waxing. 
— Of  the  numerous  systems 
of  binding,  several  are  very 
good,  others  have  been  dis- 
carded ;  those  in  which  raffia 
is  used  are  most  generally 
adopted.  What  is  required  of  the  binding  is  to  retain  the  two 
parts  in  firm  contact  until  the  tissues  of  the  joint  are  knitted 
and  become  lignified.  Therefore  the  binding  should  last  a 
sufficient  length  of  time;  it  should  not  be  made  so  tight  as 
to  hinder  the  expansion  of  the  parts  becoming  united,  or,  in 
other  words,  there  should  be  no  strangulation  of  the  joint 
(Fig.  116). 

There  are  two  means  of  attaining  this  object:  first,  by 
bindings  which  resist  decomposition  for  a  long  time  and 
expand  (elastic  bands  or  tape  of  indiarubber)  ;  second, 
those  which  soon  become  rotten,  or  are  easily  removed  when 
the  solidity  of  the  joint  renders  them  unnecessary.  Raffia* 
has,  at  least  under  certain  circumstances,  both  these  quali- 
ties; hence  the  indiarubber  tape  or  band,  although  very 
good,  has  been  discarded  in  favour  of  the  less  costly  raffia. 

When  the  grafting  has  been  done  early  in  the  season  the 
raffia  rots  a  little  too  soon,  and  the  sections  of  the  graft 
have  a  tendency,  through  the  expansion  of  the  callus,  to 
split  asunder.  By  soaking  the  raphia  in  a  solution  of  sul- 
phate of  copper  (blue  vitrol),  15  to  45  grains  per  pint  of 
water,  its  durability  is  much  increased,  and  if  it  is  found, 


*  Raffia,  or  Raphia,  is  the  thin  strong  cuticle  of  the  leaf  of  Raphia  Ruffia,  a 
palm,  native  of  Madagascar;  Raphia  Toedigera,  or  Jupati-palm,  a  Brazilian  species 
is  also  exported  to  Europe,  and  helps  to  make  up  the  bulk  of  the  Raffia  of 
commerce.  (Transls.) 


GRAFTING   AND    NURSERIES. 


235 


when  removing  the  surface  roots,  that  the  ligature  is  too 
tightly  bound,  it  should  be  cut  with  a  knife.  But  sulphate 
of  copper  is  a  very  caustic  compound,  and 
"burns"  the  tissues  with  which  it  is  in 
contact,  even  when  in  small  quantity,  and 
checks  the  division  and  multiplication  of 
the  cells  in  the  stages  of  their  develop- 
ment; it  is,  therefore,  a  great  obstacle  to 
the  formation  of  the  knitting  tissue,  and 
consequently  to  the  success  of  the  graft. 
Some  nurseries  have  often  had  extensive 
failures  through  the  use  of  bands  contain- 
ing too  much  sulphite  of  copper.  It 
should,  therefore,  be  used  with  caution, 
and,  in  order  to  diminish  its  caustic  effect, 
the  bands  should  be  washed  carefully  with 
water  to  remove  the  excess  of  sulphate  of 
copper;  enough  will  remain  fixed  in  the 
tissues  to  preserve  the  bands  from  too 
rapid  decay.  Or,  better,  the  graft  may  be 
separated  from  the  sulphated  raffia  by  a 
thin  sheet  of  lead  or  tin  (Figs.  117  to  121)  ; 
then  when  removing  the  roots  in  July  or 
August  the  bands  which  have  not  rotted 
should  be  cut. 

The  lead  foil  does  not  facilitate  the  R^fly&w. 
knitting  nor  does  it  appear  to  prevent 
the  growth  of  roots  at  the  base  of  the  scion ;  but  it  is 
rather  an  obstacle  to  the  formation  of  callus,  first,  in 
preventing  the  contact  of  air  with  the  cells  during  the 
process  of  division  and  multiplication ;  second,  and  also 
perhaps  by  penetrating  the  new  tissues  in  the  form  of  car- 
bonate of  lead,  which  is  a  poison.  But  its  action  in  that 
sense  is  practically  nil,  and  need  not  be  taken  into  account. 
On  hundreds  of  thousands  of  grafts  made  as  above  with 
lead  foil  we  have  not  noticed  any  check.  In  any  case  its 
action  is  incomparably  less  than  that  resulting  from  the 
direct  contact  of  the  sulphate  of  copper  with  the  knitting 
tissues.  The  foil  prevents  the  entrance  of  water  at  the  base 
of  the  scion ;  this  is  an  advantage  in  wet  soils,  but  rather  a 
nuisance  in  dry  soils.  Anyhow,  its  use  is  more  and  more 
discarded,  except  in  damp  soils,  where  its  employment  is  an 
advantage. 


236 


AMERICAN    VINES. 


The  ligature  may  be  made  in  any  form,  whether  lead  or 
tinfoil  be  interposed  or  not;  the  most  simple  and  rapid  of 
execution,  being  at  the  same  time  the  strongest  and  best,  is 


Fig.  117. 

Whip-tongue  Graft  with 
Ligature. 


Figs.  118  and  119. 
Shouldered  Cleft-Graft 


Figs.  120  and  121. 
Ordinary  Cleft-Graft. 


that  described  by  L.  Rougier  in  his  excellent  manual  on  the 
Re  constitution  des  vignobles,  as  follows  (see  Fig.  122)  : — "  The 
operator,  after  having  .verified  the  fit  of  the  grafted  cutting, 
holds  it  firmly  with  the  left  hand  and  commences  the  binding 
at  the  top.  One  of  the  ends  of  the  raffia  is  kept  fixed  on  the 
graft  with  the  thumb  of  the  left  hand,  while  the  other  fingers 
hold  the  stock,  the  raffia  is  then  wound  round  from  right 
to  left,  so  as  to  hold  the  end  of  the  binding  which  was  under 
the  left  thumb. 

'  The  left  hand,  being  now  free,  is  used  to  hold  the  two 
parts  of  the  graft  in  the  required  position.  Continue  to 
wind  the  raffia  with  the  right  hand,  stretching  and  twist- 


GRAFTING    AND    NURSERIES. 


237 


ing  it  slightly,  so  as  to  increase  its  strength.  The  strands 
should  not  touch  one  another,  and  as  they  are  wound  down 
the  graft  the  left  hand  is  moved  to  make  room  for  them. 

"  When  the  bottom  of  the  joint  is 
reached,  the  next  thing  is  to  tie  the  raffia. 
The  best  way  of  doing  this  is  to  fix  the 
last  strand  with  the  index  finger  of  the  left 
hand  underneath.  With  the  right  hand,  a 
large  loop  is  formed  with  the  rest  of  the 
raffia,  fixing  the  extremity  of  the  raffia 
with  the  left  thumb  in  front  of  the 
joint. 

'  The  right  hand  now  being  free,  the 
portion  of  the  raffia  that  was  held  by  the 
index  finger  of  the  left  hand  is  taken  and 
brought  over  the  extremity  held  by  the  left 
thumb. 

"  Then  turn  the  loop  twice    over    the    end 
held    by    the    thumb,     passing   it   each   time 
over    the    free    end    of    the    scion.     Finally, 
while    the    last    turn  is    held    in    position    by      Ligatm-eof'an 
the    left    index    finger,  the  end  of  the   raffia       Aglet  Graft, 
released   from  the  left  thumb  is  pulled  tight 
with  the  right  hand,  the  loop  disappears  and  the  ligature  is 
thus  secured." 

Other  methods,  of  course,  may  be  adopted,  especially 
when  the  grafts  are  being  made  on  a  growing  stock.  The 
main  point  is  to  secure  sufficient  solidity,  so  that  any  shock 
the  graft  is  likely  to  be  subjected  to  may  be  withstood.  It 
has  already  been  said  that  the  strands  or  spirals  of  raffia 
should  not  touch  each  other  (Figs.  117  to  121).  Between 
these  intervals  the  callus,  not  being  compressed,  develops 
in  large  masses,  which  insure  from  the  start  the  formation 
of  a  good  joint. 

The  use  of  cork  sheathing  has  been  recommended,  in  place 
of  lead-foil,  but,  although  good,  it  is  expensive  and  its  use 
troublesome.  Finally,  corks  (Fig.  123)  perforated  along 
their  axis,  and  cut  in  halves,  have  been  used.  The  joint  is 
completely  surrounded  by  the  cork,  which  is  held  in  position 
by  iron  wire.  The  execution  of  this  binding  is  tedious ;  it  is 
very  expensive,  and,  although  it  gives  great  solidity  to  the 
joint,  it  prevents  its  increase  in  diameter,  and  therefore  the 


238 


AMERICAN    VINES. 


formation  of  knitting  tissue ;  it  also  prevents,  when  per- 
formed underground,  the  lignification  of  the  knitting  tissue. 

This  method  of  binding  is  only 
advisable  for  grafts  made  above 
ground. 

Corks  simply  perforated  con- 
stitute an  excellent  but  expen- 
sive binding. 

Other  methods  of  binding- 
may  be  used.  All  those  are 
good  which  allow  the  access  of 
air  and  the  increase  of  the  joint 
in  diameter  (for  the  thicker  the 
layers  of  wood  and  liber  are, 
the  more  perfect  the  knitting 
is),  and  resist  rotting  suffi- 
ciently, or  are  easy  to  remove 
at  opportune  times;  which  are 
not  detrimental  to  the  young 
cells  of  knitting  tissue  in  the 
formative  stage,  and,  finally, 
cheap  and  easily  applied.  Raffia 
seems  to  us  to  possess  all  the 
required  qualities,  if,  according 

to  circumstances,  precautions  are  taken  as  indicated  above. 
Consequently,  early  grafts  should  be  tied  with  sulphated 
raffia,  washed  with  water  to  remove  the  excess  of  sulphate 
of  copper,  or,  again,  lead  or  tin  foil  may  be  interposed 
between  the  ligature  and  the  joint  (Figs.  117  to  121).  For 
late  grafts,  made  in  April  or  May,  non-sulphated  raffia  should 
be  used  without  lead  or  tin  (Figs.  116,  120). 

To  increase  the  solidity  of  the  joint,  and  to  guard  against 
the  too  rapid  decomposition  of  the  ligature,  a  lead  ring  3  or 
4  mm.  wide  (y%  inch)  may  be  fixed  around  the  joint  by  bring- 
ing its  two  extremities  together. 

Grafts  stratified  in  moss  may  do  without  ligatures ;  how- 
ever, no  inconvenience  results  from  consolidating  them  by 
means  of  a  few  turns  of  raffia.  Finally,  the  solidity  of  the 
joint  may  be  increased  by  means  of  an  iron  dowel  introduced 
into  the  pith  of  both  stock  and  scion.  This  method  of 
grafting  is  called  the  End-to-End  or  dowel  graft.  Both  stock 
and  scion  are  cut  slantingly ;  the  dowel  or  piece  of  galvanized- 
iron  wire  is  introduced  into  the  pith  of  stock  and  scion, 


Fig.  123.— Cork  Graft. 


GRAFTING    AND    NURSERIES.  239 

and  the  two  bevels  exactly  juxtaposed.  This  graft  succeeds 
fairly  well,  but  we  do  not  think  it  is  more  meritorious  than  the 
whip-tongue  or  English  cleft-grafts. 

All  the  waxings  which  have  been  tried  are  now  totally 
abandoned.  They  are  not  only  useless,  but  even  detrimental. 
If  we  recall  what  was  said  when  studying  the  formation 
of  knitting  tissue,  this  detrimental  effect  can  be  easily  ex- 
plained. It  prevents  the  air,  and,  therefore,  oxygen  from 
reaching  the  joint,  and,  in  the  case  of  grafts  made  on  rooted 
plants,  when  the  sap  begins  to  rise,  it  maintains  around  the 
joint  an  excessive  humidity,  which  is  a  very  great  obstacle 
to  the  formation  of  knitting  tissue. 


III. GRAFTING    ON    GROWING   STALKS   AND    BENCH 

GRAFTING 

The  various  grafts  studied  may  be  executed — ist,  on  the 
growing  stocks  in  the  vineyards  or  in  nurseries ;  2nd,  indoors 
on  cuttings  or  rootlings  (bench  grafting). 

A. — GRAFTING  ON  GROWING  STOCKS. 

(a)  Time  of  Grafting. — Grafting  on  growing  stocks  is 
generally  performed  during  the  months  of  March,  April,  and 
May.  But,  during  this  period,  is  there  any  more  favor- 
able time  which  can  be  fixed?  If  it  were  not  for  the  risk 
the  scion  runs  of  rotting  or  drying,  we  are  of  opinion  that 
early  grafts  have  better  chances  of  success,  and  that  those 
made  in  February  or  March  should  give  a  better  number  of 
strike  than  those  made  later  on,  in  April  or  May.  It  has 
been  noticed,  in  fact,  that  grafts  made  when  the  stock  is  in 
full  sap  do  not  generally  knit,  and  there  is  a  common  saying 
to  the  effect  that  the  sap  drowns  the  scion.  The  sap  drowns 
nothing  at  all.  If  we  place  a  portion  of  a  cane  or  a  scion  in 
water  it  will  grow,  especially  if  the  water  contains  nutritive 
matters,  and  it  will  not  be  "  drowned."  The  sap  surrounding 
the  scion  is,  after  all,  water,  with  several  other  substances  dis- 
solved in  it,  which  are  also  nutritive  matters;  they  seem, 
however,  to  be  injurious  to  the  scion.  It  is,  as  established 
previously,  that  water  (or  the  sap)  opposes  the  formation  of 
knitting  tissue.  Callus  pads  will  never  develop  on  the  base 


24O  AMERICAN    VINES. 

of  a  scion  or  the  upper  extremity  of  a  stock  planted  under 
these  conditions.  We  see,  therefore,  that  grafts  made  when 
the  stock  has  not  begun  to  bleed  will  have  the  best  chances 
of  success. 

Later  on,  when  the  bleeding  is  already  abundant,  the 
success  may  be  quite  as  great,  for  the  channels  conveying 
the  sap  become  closed  at  their  extremity  by  gum  or  bacterial 
colonies  (we  have,  in  fact,  all  observed  that  after  a  few  days 
the  section  of  a  cane  or  spur  does  not  allow  the  sap  to  flow, 
and  that  a  new  section  made  about  y*  inch  below  it  bleeds 
abundantly)  ;  if  this  moment  coincides  with  the  start  of  growth 
of  both  scion  and  stock,  or,  better,  precedes  it,  knitting 
tissue  forms  easily,  and  the  knitting  takes  place.  But  if 
(and  this  is  the  case  for  late  grafts  made  in  April  or  May, 
according  to  the  district)  the  scion  starts  growing  before  the 
flow  of  sap  has  ceased,  the  slightest  check  in  its  develop- 
ment, due  to  change  of  temperature  or  to  active  evaporation, 
compromises  the  strike,  the  knitting  tissue  not  having  been 
able  to  form  to  guard  against  that  check  in  the  growth. 

Finally,  still  later  on,  when  the  vine  has  ceased  to  bleed, 
in  June  for  instance,  the  knitting  takes  place  under  better 
conditions. 

This  explains  the  beneficial  effect  of  cutting  the  rooted 
stocks  a  few  days  previous  to  grafting;  the  fatal  influence 
of  heavy  rains  during  the  period  of  grafting  maintaining  the 
grafts  in  too  damp  surroundings ;  of  the  too  great  compact- 
ness of  the  soil  placed  around  the  joint  preventing  the  escape 
of  excess  of  sap;  and  it  explains  also  the  good  strike  often 
obtained  in  grafting  growing  stocks  in  cold  regions  of  the 
south-west,  centre,  and  east  of  France,  and  also  in  certain 
seasons  in  the  south. 

For  the  knitting  tissue  to  be  produced  with  certainty  at 
the  moment  the  scion  starts  to  grow,  or,  better,  a  little  be- 
fore, the  surfaces  in  contact  must  not  be  in  too  damp 
surroundings;  this  result  may  be  obtained  at  any  time  by 
cutting  the  growing  stock  previously,  so  as  to  only  proceed 
with  the  grafting  when  the  vine  has  ceased  to  bleed. 

(&)  Operation  of  Grafting. — The  stocks,  whatever  their  age 
may  be,  are  previously  decapitated,  the  soil  is  removed 
from  around  the  stump  to  facilitate  the  operation.  They  are 
decapitated  by  a  section  made  perpendicular  to  their  axis, 
generally  a  little  above  ground,  at  the  time  when  the  graft 
has  to  be  done,  or,  better,  a  week  or  a  fortnight  before, 


GRAFTING    AND    NURSERIES.  24! 

especially  when  the  plant  is  bleeding,  for  reasons  already 
stated.  The  stock  thus  prepared  is  grafted,  if  very  large, 
with  the  ordinary  or  double-cleft  graft  (Figs.  106  to  108)  ;  if 
small  in  dimensions,  and  one  or  two  years  old  only,  with 
the  English  cleft  or  Whip-tongue  graft.  The  English  cleft- 
graft  gives  the  greater  number  of  unions,  for  reasons  already 
given,  and  also  because  it  allows  the  sap  to  escape  easier  than 
the  whip-tongue. 

The  point  where  the  stock  is  grafted  may  be  level  with 
the  ground,  especially  in  cold  districts  of  the  centre  and  the 
east  of  France,  never  below ;  but  preferably  ^  or  1 1/±  inches 
above  the  surface  in  the  hot  regions  of  the  south.  Under 
these  conditions  the  roots  of  the  scion  are  more  easily 
removed ;  and,  later  on,  being  always  above  ground,  roots 
never  grow  at  the  base  of  the  scion,  so  that  the  ultimate 
liberation  of  the  scion  is  not  to  be  feared ;  the  knitting  tissue 
being  also  exposed  to  the  air  lignifies  better,  becomes  hard 
and  resistant,  and,  therefore,  less  affected  by  frosts  and 
knocks. 

Acording  to  the  season,  the  joint  is  bound  with  sulphated 
raffia,  isolated  by  tin  or  lead  foil,  or  with  ordinary  raffia. 
Fine  loose  soil  is  then  earthed  up  around  the  stump.  In  very 
stiff  soils  it  is  better  to  use  sand  to  cover  up  the  scion,  for 
reasons  already  given. 

The  mound  should  be  40  to  45  cm.  (14  to  16  inches) 
in  diameter  at  its  base ;  it  must  cover  the  scion  completely, 
in  such  a  way  that  after  the  mound  has  settled  down  the  top 
eye  be  covered  with  34  inch  of  soil  only  before  it  starts 
growing.  The  mound  maintains  the  graft  at  an  even 
temperature,  prevents  it  from  drying,  and  also  from  being 
knocked  out  by  wind,  etc.  To  guard  against  the  latter 
accident,  it  is  advisable  to  place  a  stake  at  the  foot  of  each 
graft,  to  which  the  shoots  may  be  tied  as  they  grow. 

The  graft  on  old  stocks  of  large  dimensions  is  less  suc- 
cessful than  on  stocks  of  smaller  diameter.  This  cannot  be 
due  to  their  structure,  which  is  always  similar  whatever  their 
age  may  be ;  but  it  is  more  likely  due  to  the  great  quan- 
tity of  sap  escaping  from  the  section. 

(c)  Severing  the  Roots. — When  the  knitting  is  almost 
complete,  that  is  to  say,  in  July  or  August,  according  to 
the  district,  the  roots  which  have  developed  on  the  scions 
should  be  removed.  All  shoots  grown  from  the  stock  having 
been  removed  as  they  appeared. 


242 


AMERICAN    VINES. 


Fig.  124. — Mattock  used  for  severing 
the  roots. 


The  roots  growing  on  the  scion  are  not,  after  all,  a  -very 
great  hindrance  to  the  knitting;  and  if  their  development, 
as  everybody  knows,  is  in  reverse  ratio  to  the  production  of 
callus,  they  are  generally  the  result  of  knitting  which  has 
been  slowly  effected.  Their  removal  in  July  or  August  is  too 
late  to  appreciably  improve  the  knitting,  but  it  is  import- 
ant, howe-ver,  to  stop  their  further  development;  they  should 

therefore  be  removed.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  when  the  scion 
is  nourished  partly  by  the 
roots  of  the  stock  and  partly 
by  its  own,  the  stock,  only 
bearing  a  limited  part  in  the 
growth  of  the  plant,  dwindles, 
remains  slender,  and  can  only 
partially  contribute  to  the 
solidity  of  the  knitting;  its 
roots  remain  small  and 
slender;  in  a  word,  they 
waste  away,  so  much  the 
more  as  the  roots  of  the 
scion,  growing  under  much 
better  conditions  of  soil  and  situation,  assume  more  rapid 
development.  The  stock  ceases  to  be  useful  to  the  scion, 
which  henceforth  becomes  liberated  and  grows  indepen- 
dently. This  is  shown  in  Fig.  125 ;  a  scion  growing  on 
its  own  roots.  The  roots  of  the  scion  are  not,  therefore,  an 
obstacle  to  the  herbaceous  growth ;  on  the  contrary,  they 
favour  it,  especially  in  calcareous  soils  (calcareous  soils  of  the 
Charentes).  Vines  grafted  on  Riparia  nourished  both  by  the 
roots  of  the  scion  and  stock  are  the  only  ones  resisting  chlo- 
rosis; but  this  only  lasts  as  long  as  the  phylloxera  is  not  on 
their  roots. 

If  the  removal  of,  the  roots  of  the  scion  is  effected  too  late 
in  the  season,  the  vine  is  placed  in  a  bad  condition  for  nutri- 
tion; the  dwindled  root  system  of  the  stock  is  not  sufficient 
to  nourish  it  any  longer,  and  if  the  soil  is  unsuitable  it  withers 
and  dies. 

The  severing  of  the  roots  must  be  done  as  early  as  pos- 
sible, in  order  to  furnish  the  plant  with  the  substance  neces- 
sary to  its  existence. 

According  to  regions  this  operation  is  done  in  July  or 
August  in  France.  The  soil  is  earthed  up  again,  but  not 


GRAFTING    AND    NURSERIES. 


243 


quite  so  high;  in  September  the  roots  are  removed  a  second 
time,  if  necessary,  the  raffia  which  has  not  rotted  away  is 
cut,  and  the  joint  is  left  completely  exposed  to  the  air  and 
sun  so  as  to  lignify  and  harden. 

(d)  Care  to  be  given  to  Grafts. — At  the  beginning  of  winter 
the  joint  may  be  left  exposed  to  the  air,  especially  if  well 
lignified.  But  it  is  preferable  to 
earth  up  the  soil  again,  so  as  to 
guard  it  against  the  possible 
effects  of  winter  frosts.  This 
precaution  is  specially  necessary 
in  the  cold  regions  of  the  centre 
and  east  of  France,  where  the 
grafts  grow  tardily,  and  are  not 
always  well  lignified  when  the 
first  winter  frosts  appear. 

In  the  following  spring  the 
soil  is  removed  from  the  stump, 
and  the  joint  left  exposed  to  the  air. 

The  stock  is  frequently  smaller 
than  the  scion  in  diameter, 
especially  for  Riparia,  Solonis ; 
and,  for  this  reason,  it  is  liable  to 
be  broken  by  wind.  A  well- 
knitted  graft  never  breaks  at  the 
joint,  but  always  below.  This 
accident  may  be  avoided  by  tying 
the  plant  firmly  to  a  stake. 

Pinching  is  useless,  although 
harmless. 

It  goes  without  saying  that 
the  young  shoots,  which  are 
tender,  and  therefore  very  sensi- 
tive to  cryptogamic  diseases, 
should  be  carefully  treated,  to 
prevent  mildew. 

In  nurseries,  grafting  on-  grow- 
ing stocks  is  performed  in  the 
same  way,  and  the  same  care  and 
attention  are  necessary. 

We    have    assumed    in    the    fore-        Liberated  Graff.'  "a)  Strong  scion 

:going    that    the    stock    had    been          roots-    (t&          roots  °f 


244  AMERICAN    VINES. 

planted  out  for  at  least  one  year.  Rooted  cuttings  are 
sometimes  planted  out  in  autumn,  to  be  grafted  in  the  fol- 
lowing spring.  Here,  again,  the  operation  is  performed  in 
the  same  way,  using  the  whip-tongue  or  English  cleft-grafts. 
But  frequently  better  results  are  obtained  by  this  method 
than  with  stocks  that  had  been  planted  out  for  one  year,  at  least 
in  the  cold  regions  of  the  south-west  and  centre. 

How  can  this  be  explained?  The  graft  is  not  better 
made  in  one  case  than  in  the  other.  It  is  that  rooted  cut- 
tings do  not  bleed  as  much,  and  also  that  stock  and  scion 
are  not  surrounded  by  an  excess  of  water,  and  are  therefore 
placed  under  better  conditions  for  the  production  of 
callus.  ' 

This  method,  which  can  only  be  applied  to  vigorous  root- 
lings,  allows  a  rapid  and  cheap  reconstitution  to  be  made, 
but  gives  rather  weak  grafts,  at  least  during  the  first  year 
following  the  grafting. 

(e)  Selection  and  Preservation  of  Scions. — We  need  not 
•  insist  on  the  selections  of  scions.  They  should  only  be  cut 
from  those  canes  which  have  borne  the  most  fruit,  and  from 
the  most  fertile  vines.  They  should  never  be  taken  from 
young  vines,  which  always  have  a  tendency  to  produce  wood 
instead  of  fruit,  and  which  are  never  well  lignified ;  nor 
from  vines  affected  by  cryptogamic  diseases,  which  are  always 
deficient  in  reserve  material,  and  consequently  incapable  of 
forming  much  callus. 

For  early  grafts  (February)  the  scions  may  be  taken 
direct  from  the  stump  and  used  immediately ;  for  late 
grafts  they  should  be  cut  beforehand,  previous  to  the  start  of 
growth,  preserved  in  a  cool  place  exposed  to  the  north,  and 
completely  buried  in  almost  dry  sand.  For,  as  already  said, 
the  stock  always  forms  callus  with  difficulty;  hence  it  is 
important  that  its  growth  should  be  more  advanced  than  that 
of  the  scion. 

(/)  Autumn  Grafts. — Grafting  on  growing  stocks  can 
also  be  performed  in  autumn,  in  the  manner  already  indi- 
cated; the  scions  are  taken  from  well  lignified  canes,  and 
the  graft  should  be  well  earthed  up.  The  results  have  proved 
unsuccessful  almost  everywhere. 

Finally,  it  may  also  be  performed  in  summer,  without 
decapitating  the  stock.  In  this  case  the  Cadillac  and  Gaillard 
systems  of  grafting  are  used. 


GRAFTING    AND    NURSERIES. 


245 


Cadillac  Graft.  —  Cazeaux-Cazalet,  who  promoted  this 
method,  describes  it  as  follows  :  —  '  The  stump  is  not  decapi- 
tated. Its  growth  is  not  interrupted,  and  it  remains  healthy 
the  following  spring,  much  more  so  than  if  it  had  been  cut 
down,  and  may  be  grafted  again,  if  the  graft  has  missed,. 
with  the  same  chance  of  success  as  if  it  had  not  been  grafted 
at  all.  An  Eng- 
lish cleft  or  whip- 
tongue  graft  is 
made  laterally. 
Here  are  a  few 
details  with  regard 
to  the  method  of 
execution  — 

"  First  remove 
the  soil  and  form 
a  little  basin  round 
the  stump.  Then 
a  cleft  is  made 
laterally  from  top 
to  bottom,  3  or  4 
inches  above  the 
level  of  the  ground, 
a  straight  section 
is  made  descending 
obliquely  towards 
the  pith  (Figs.  126 
to  128)  ;  this  cleft 
must  be  made  with 
a  thin-bladed  knife, 
commencing  at  a 
(Fig.  126),  hori- 
zontally (sharp 
edge  downwards) 
proceeding  down- 
wards and  com- 
municating to  the 

blade    a    Slow    Saw-         Cadilffc  GrafMa/Stock. 

(6)  Scion- 


Figs.  128  and  129. 
Cadillac  Graft,  (a)  Stock 
(b)  Scion. 


like  movement  to- 
wards  b  ;  the  section  should  be  1  1/2  inches  in  depth  ;  the 
scion  is  cut  like  that  of  an  ordinary  cleft-graft  (Fig.  128), 
and  introduced  in  place  of  the  knife.  The  scion  should  be 
chosen  of  such  a  size  that  the  liber  of  stock  and  scion  be 


246 


AMERICAN    VINES. 


in  exact  contact  at  least  at  the  bottom  of  the  cleft.  The 
stock  may  be  prepared  with  one  eye  as  shown  in  Fig.  130 
(Cazeaux-Cazalet  graft).  The  scion  in  this  case  must  be  a 
little  smaller  than  the  cleft  for  contact  to  take  place  at 
a,  b,  c,  d. 

'  To  make  the  lateral  whip-tongue  graft,  a  longitudinal  slice 
of  i  or  i  y2  inches  is  removed  from  one  side  of  the  stock  at  the 
same  height  as  for  the  cleft  (Figs.  126,  a,  d), 
cutting  a  little  deeper  than  the  bark;  at  a 
point  three-fourths  of  the  distance  from 
the  bottom  of  the  slice,  a  small  oblique 
cleft,  c,  b,  is  made,  similar  to  that  of  an 
ordinary  whip-tongue  graft;  the  scion,  cut 
like  that  of  the  latter  (Fig.  127,  b)  of  a 
diameter  equal  to  the  cleft  of  the  stock,  is 
inserted  in  that  cleft,  taking  care  to  secure 
contact  of  the  liber  at  least  towards  the 
lower  part  of  the  sections. 

"  The  scion  should  have  at  least  two  eyes 
above  the  joint. 

"  The  cleft  should  always  be  oblique, 
especially  for  the  side  cleft-graft,  and 
straight,  to  avoid  a  curved  section,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  131,  for  it  renders  the  juxta- 
position difficult,  the  ligature  forcing  the 
scion  to  bend;  and,  if  the  ligature  breaks 
during  winter,  the  weight  of  the  scion 
dislocates  the  joint,  and  the  scion  hangs 
on  the  tongue,  which  is  too  weak  to  sup- 
port it. 

"  As  far  as  possible,  the  graft  should  be 
made  without  removing  the  stake  from 
the  stock ;  the  section  of  the  scion  must 
always  be  as  close  as  possible  to  a 
node. 

"  The  joints  are  tied  with  raffia  alone,  or  raffia  and  lead 
bands  rolled  over  and  the  two  ends  twisted  together. 

"  The  scions  should  be  made  with  wood  of  the  year,  well 
lignified,  and  taken  from  the  vine  just  when  required  for 
grafting;  although  scions  preserved  in  sand  have  been  used 
with  success.  The  scions  must  be  well  lignified,  if  they  are 
not  they  may  knit,  but  are  liable  to  dry  off  in  summer,  espec- 
ially if  the  season  is  too  dry. 


Fig.  130. 

Cazeaux-Cazalet 

Graft. 


GRAFTING    AND    NURSERIES. 


247 


1 


"  The  knitting  begins   at   a   few   points   of   contact  before 

the  autumn,  but  the   scion   remains   with   dormant   eyes;   its 

buds    burst    the    following    spring,   at   the 

same    time    as    those    of    the    stock.     This 

early     start     necessitates      sheltering      the 

grafts    during    the    first    year,    in    districts 

liable  to  early  spring  frosts. 

"  The     graft     may     be     performed      in 

summer,    with    equal    chances    of    success, 

using    scions    which    were    stratified  in  dry 

sand  during  winter ;  but    the    scions    grow 

during    the     same     summer    and     produce 

insufficiently  lignified  wood,  easily  affected 

by     the     inclemency     of      winter;      conse- 
quently, the    following    spring    they  are  in 

less  advantageous  circumstances    than    the 

scions  of  the  year. 

'  The    soil    is  then  earthed  up  so  as  to 

completely     cover     the     scion.     When     the 

soil    is    not    sufficiently    mellow,  it  is  pre- 
ferable to  use   sand   for  immediate  contact 

with  the  scion.     For  this  operation  a  metal 

cylinder    or     piece     of     down-piping     split       Defective^cieft. 

along  its  side  is  placed  around    the    scion 

and  filled  with  sand;  the  soil  is  then  earthed  up  around  it 

and  the  cylinder  lifted  out. 

"As  an  alternative  a  small 
basin  may  be  made  with  soil 
around  the  scion  and  filled 
with  sand,  finishing  the 
mound  with  soil. 

"  During  winter  the 
grafted  stock  is  pruned  in 
the  ordinary  way. 

"  For  the  pinching  or  sup- 
pression of  the  shoots  of  the 
stock,  cut  the  stock  with  a 
secateur  an  inch  or  two 
above  the  joint,  when  the 
buds  begin  to  shoot;  or  care- 
fully pinch  all  the  shoots  on 
the  stock  as  they  develop. 
Fig.  Tsz.-cadmasd-cieft  Graft.  The  latter  method  requires- 


Fig.  131. 


248 


AMERICAN    VINES. 


more  labour  than  the  former,  as  it  necessitates  the  operation 

being  frequently  repeated. 

'  The   effect   of   this   operation    is   very   remarkable.      The 

knitted  scion  immediately  starts  growing,  and,  when  the 
shoots  on  the  stock  have  been  pinched 
two  or  three  times,  the  shoots  on  the 
scion  develop  rapidly. 

'  The  roots  and  ligatures  of  the 
scion  should  be  removed  when  its 
branches  are  40  to  50  cm.  (16  to  20 
inches)  in  length.  The  latter  should 
be  tied  to  a  stake  to  prevent  the  fre- 
quent strong  winds  of  spring  from 
breaking*  the  joint.  After  this  is  done, 
the  graft  does  not  require  any  further 
special  care.  Ploughing  and  scarifying 
are  proceeded  with  as  usual." 

Gaillard  Graft. — Fig.  133  shows 
very  clearly  the  method  of  making 
this  graft,  which  requires  the  same 
care  as  the  above. 

Grafting  on  growing  stocks  gives 
very  variable  strikes;  sometimes  90 
per  cent,  or  more,  sometimes  50,  or 
even  25  per  cent.  only.  In  the  majority 
of  cases,  vineyards  reconstituted  by 
this  method  are  patchy;  the  misses 
have  to  be  replaced  by  grafted  root- 
lings  ;  and  the  yield  is  put  back  two  years  in  the  case  of  the 

replaced  vines. 

For  this  reason,   in  the  cool   regions    of    the    south-west, 

centre,  and  east,  and  even  in  the  south  of  France,  it  has  been 

discarded  in  favour  of  bench  grafting. 

B. — BENCH  GRAFTING. 

(a)  Grafting  on  cuttings. — The  canes  of  American  vines 
destined  to  be  used  as  stock,  and  which  should  be  at  least 
6  mm.  (y^  inch)  in  diameter  at  the  small  end,  are  cut  in 
lengths  of  25  or  28  centimetres  (10  to  n  inches).  The 
bottom  section  is  made  under  and  as  close  as  possible  to 
a  node  (Figs.  118  to  122)  ;  for  we  know  that  the  roots 
grow  stronger  and  more  abundantly  on  a  node  than  on  an 


Fig.  133. 
Gaillard  Graft. 


GRAFTING    AND    NURSERIES.  249 

inter-node;  this  is  indispensable  for  Berlandieri  and  all 
cepages  rooting  with  difficulty.  The  upper  section  is  made 
3  Or  4  cm.  (i  to  il/2  inches)  above  a  node — we  have  already 
shown  why;  and  for  the  English  cleft-graft  the  joint 
is  strengthened,  the  cleft  being  limited  at  the  bottom  by  a 
node. 

The  American  canes  are  therefore  used  on  all  their 
length  as  long  as  the  minimum  diameter  is  not  less  than  a 
quarter  of  an  inch ;  one  cane  may  in  this  way  furnish  eight  to 
ten  stocks.  It  would,  no  doubt,  be  better  to  use,  as  in  the 
old  days,  the  base  of  the  cane  only,  where  the  nodes  are 
closer  together;  the  chances  of  rooting  would  be  increased 
and  the  vine  would  be  more  robust;  but  the  present  high 
price  of  American  stock  does  not  allow  this  selection  to  be 
made. 

Is  it  necessary  to  bark  the  stock?  When  we  have  to 
deal  with  cuttings  of  Herbemont,  Solonis,  Jacquez,  etc., 
which  do  not  strike  easily,  yes ;  for  the  barking  facilitates 
the  penetration  of  the  tissues  by  water,  and,  replacing  that 
constantly  evaporated  at  the  top  of  the  cutting  exposed 
to  the  air,  hastens  the  production  of  roots.  But  grafted 
cuttings  are  always  completely  covered  with  soil,  and. 
consequently,  no  active  evaporation  takes  place.  And 
further,  on  the  barked  part,  strong  pads  of  callus,  identical 
with  the  knitting  tissue,  appear,  and  they  might  be  formed 
at  the  expense  of  the  latter. 

The  usefulness  of  barking,  really  apparent  for  cuttings 
having  their  upper  part  exposed  to  the  air,  does  not  seem 
so  evident  in  the  case  of  grafted  cuttings,  except  perhaps 
when  they  have  become  dried  before  planting.  However, 
whether  barked  or  not,  the  results  have  been  practically 
identical. 

A  far  more  important  operation  is  that  which  consists 
in  cutting  off  all  the  buds  of  the  stock.  It  is  not 
sufficient  to  remove  them  with  the  finger-nail  or  to  cut 
them  above  the  ring  of  latent  buds ;  for,  in  this  case, 
three  or  four  buds  burst  all  round,  living  at  the  expense 
of  the  plant,  and  preventing  the  development  of  the 
knitting  tissue.  Stocks  bearing  their  own  snoots  have  no 
tendency  to  knit  with  the  scion. 

This  precaution  is  specially  indispensable  for  Rnpestris 
and  its  hybrids. — This  stock  is  said  to  give  insignificant 
strikes  when  grafted  by  the  bench  method ;  as  a  matter  of 


.250 


AMERICAN    VINES. 


I 

1 


fact,  this  is  simply  because  the  buds  of  the  stock  are 
not  removed  in  a  proper  way.  It  is  not  sufficient  to  re- 
move them,  as  is  done  for  Vialla  and  Riparia,  by  cutting 
the  base  of  the  main  bud;  a  large  cut  of  at  least  half-a- 
•centimetre  (%  inch)  in  diameter  must  be  made,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  134;  in  doing  so  the  principal  as  well  as  the 
latent  buds  are  removed.  With  this  pre- 
caution, grafts  on  Rupestris  succeed  better 
than  on  any  other  stock;  and  recently 
45,000  Rupestris  grafted  cuttings  gave  us 
80  per  cent,  strikes,  and  over  60  per  cent. 
good  knittings.  It  is  preferable  to  remove 
the  buds  only  when  planting  out. 

The  scion  bears  one  or  two  buds;  one  is 
sufficient  when  the  nursery  is  established 
in  loose  fresh  soil,  for  in  this  case  the  joint, 
even  if  close  to  the  surface,  is  not  liable 
to  dry.  In  dry  soils  the  joint  should  be 
buried  much  deeper,  otherwise  it  would 
dry  ;  but  if  the  bud  is  too  much  covered 
with  soil  it  does  not  grow  well.  It  is 
therefore  rather  difficult,  in  these  soils,  to 
place  it  under  the  most  favorable  conditions 
for  growth.  If  the  scion  bears  two  eyes, 
on  the  contrary,  the  joint  is  always  placed 
deep  enough  to  prevent  its  desiccation; 
and  the  upper  bud  of  the  scion,  which  alone 
develops,  is  covered  with  y^  inch  of  soil  at 
most. 

Stock  and  scion  thus  prepared  are  joined 
as  previously  described. 

The  grafts  made  before  April  are  tied 
with  sulphated  and  washed  raffia,  isolated 
from  the  joint  by  lead  or  tin  foil;  after 
April  non-sulphated  raffia  may  be  used, 
without  lead  or  tin  foil.  The  strands  should 
not  touch  each  other  (Figs.  117,  119,  122), 

^   ™>  WaX   sh°uld   be   ^' 

(fr)  Stratification  and  callusing.  —  The 
grafted  cuttings  are  planted  out  immedi- 
ately, if  prepared  at  the  end  of  April;  otherwise  they 
are  preserved  till  the  moment  of  planting  out.  In  this 
case,  they  are  tied  in  bundles  of  ten  to  twenty,  and  placed 


Showing  thfway  of 

removing  the  eyes 


GRAFTING   AND    NURSERIES.  25! 

in  fresh  sand,  outside,  taking  care,  however,  to  shelter 
them  from  frosts  and  variations  of  temperature,  which 
might  damage  the  joint.  In  a  word,  grafted  cuttings  should 
be  preserved,  as  was  formerly  done  in  the  case  of  ordinary 
cuttings.  This  method  is  the  simplest  and  most  effective. 
The  grafts,  being  in  a  moist  surrounding,  do  not  lose  the 
water  necessary  to  their  growth ;  the  temperature  is  higher 
and  more  constant,  especially  if  the  heaps  of  sand  are  placed 
in  a  sunny  place  against  a  wall ;  this  induces  the  formation 
of  knitting  tissue,  and  often,  when  the  time  of  planting  out 
has  arrived,  the  knitting  is  partially  effected,  and  roots  have 
developed  on  the  stock. 

An  excess  of  humidity  must  be  avoided ;  it  hastens,  it  is 
true,  the  formation  of  roots,  but  opposes  the  formation  of 
knitting  tissue.  If  the  sand  is  too  damp,  the  callusing  is 
defective.  The  sand  should  not  contain  more  than  5  to  10 
per  cent,  of  water.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  shelter  it  from 
heavy  rain. 

When  all  these  precautions  are  taken,  the  knitting  is 
almost  completed  after  a  month's  stratification,  and  both 
stock  and  scion  begin  to  develop.  This  is  the  best  time  to 
plant  them  out  in  the  nursery.  Grafted  cuttings  may  also 
be  callused  in  moss.  The  results  are  good  if  water  is  not 
present  in  excess.  But  the  use  of  moss  presents  certain 
difficulties  which  do  not  apply  to  sand.  It  has  to  be  watered 
often  to  prevent  drying;  the  water  is  often  in  excess,  and 
grafted  cuttings  stratified  in  this  material  develop  without 
knitting. 

(c)  Preservation  of  stocks  and  scions.  — The  canes  to  be 
used  as  stocks  are  preserved  in  the  same  way  (if  not  cut  and 
used  directly).  Sand  is  to  be  preferred  to  earth,  as  it  does 
not  soil  them. 

The  scions  may  be  cut  from  the  stump  until  the  end  of 
February;  after  that  they  are  preserved  in  almost  dry  sand, 
in  a  shed  exposed  to  the  north,  as  already  explained. 
When  they  are  to  be  used,  the  section  of  the  bark  should  be 
of  a  bright  green  colour.  If  it  is  whitish,  it  indicates  that 
they  have  become  too  dry. 


252  -AMERICAN   VINES. 


IV. NURSERIES. 

(a)  Selection     and  preparation     of     soil. — Almost     any 
ground  may  be  converted  into  a  nursery,  with  more  or  less 
success.      Dry,   pebbly   soils   which   cannot  be   watered   often 
result  in  failures ;  the  growth  of  the  roots  takes  place  slowly, 
and  the  joint  is  liable  to  dry.     Compact  or  very  damp  soils 
are  not  much  better;  for  whatever  may  be  the  length  of  the 
shoots,  the  roots  always  remain  small  and  slender,  and  the 
knitting  is  defective.     As  in  the  case  of  most  plants  where 
rapid  development  is   required,   the   grafted   cuttings   need   a 
very  friable,  sandy,  fresh,  and,  above  all,  fertile  soil.     Recent 
alluvials   are,   generally,  .very   suitable   for   the   establishment 
of  a  nursery,  as  also  warm  siliceous  soils  where  heath  grows 
naturally;  in  fact,  all  soils  remaining  moist  at  a  certain  depth 
and    becoming    easily  .warmed    on    the  surface,  but  without 
baking  hard.     We  should,  as  far  as  possible,  avoid  establish- 
ing nurseries  in  soils  the  surface  of  which  forms  a  crust  after 
rain;   the  buds   remaining  imprisoned   cannot   shoot   through 
the  hard  crust,  and  therefore  die  off. 

The  neighborhood  of  trees  must  be  avoided;  whatever 
care  may  have  been  taken  in  cutting  their  roots  when 
trenching,  grafted  cuttings  never  develop  well  in  the  vicinity 
of  trees  or  forests,  on  account  either  of  the  shade  or  the 
•exhaustion  of  the  soil  by  their  roots. 

Trenching  or  subsoiling  by  hand  should  be  preferred,  the 
work  being  done  in  summer.  Manuring  with  fertilizers,  or 
preferably  with  stable  manure,  should  be  done  freely. 

(b)  Plantations. — The  planting  of  the  nursery  is  done  in 
April  or  May,  the  cuttings  are  planted  in  lines,  the  distance 
apart  of  which  varies  according  to  the  size  of  the  plot.     But 
for  the  cultural   care,  the   removal  of  the   roots,   etc.,  to  be 
€asily  performed,  the  lines  should  be  at  least  50  to  60  cm. 
apart  (20  to  24  inches).     Again,  they  may  be  arranged  two 
by  two,  20  cm.    (8  inches)   apart,  each  group  of  two  being 
separated  by  an  interval  of  I  metre  (3ft.  3in.).     The  distance 
apart  of  the  cuttings  in  the  line  may  vary  between  5  and  15 
cm.  (2  to  6  inches).     It  goes  without  saying  that  the  further 
they  are  apart  the  better. 

The  planting  may  be  done  with  a  dibble,  a  fork,  or  in  a 
trench. 

When  planting  with  a  dibble  (Fig.  135),  the  land  should  be 
previously  manured.  The  grafted  cuttings  are  buried  in 


GRAFTING    AND    NURSERIES. 


253 


such  a  way  that  the  joints  be  below  the  general  surface, 
although  this  is  not  of  very  great  importance.  What  is 
more  important  is  that  the  soil  should  be  rammed  round  the 
cutting,  and  above  all  that  the  upper  eye  of  the  scions  be 
exactly  on  the  same  level,  so  as  to  be  covered  with  an  even 
thickness  of  soil. 

The  application  of  this  rule  is  the  best  guarantee  of 
success ;  for  if  the  more  or  less  perfect  execution  of  the 
joints  is  an  important  element 
of  success,  the  way  in  which 
the  planting  is  performed  is 
even  of  greater  importance ; 
and  many  failures  attributed 
to  the  bad  quality  of  the  joint, 
etc.,  were  simply  due  to  badly 
carried  out  planting.  It  is  of 
the  utmost  importance,  as 
already  pointed  out,  for  the  eye 
to  be  covered  with  a  thin  layer 

of  soil  (J4  inch)  and  not  left  bare,  in  order  to  develop  well. 
If  the  eyes  are  not  all  on  the  same  level  after  the  earthing 
up,  some  will  naturally  be  too  much  covered  and  will  not 
develop,  or  others,  insufficiently  covered,  will  become  dry. 

With  a  fork,  the  operation  is  more  rapidly  carried  out,  but 
this  method  can  only  be  applied  to  very  friable  light  soil. 

With  trenches  the  operation  is  quite  as  rapidly  performed. 
The  trenches  are  dug  35  cm.  (14  inches)  in  depth  and  50  to 
60  cm.  (20  to  24  inches)  apart.  One  of  the  walls  is  cut  sloping, 
the  grafts  are  placed  against  it,  in  such  a  way  that  the  top 


Fig-  135- — Grafted  Cuttings  planted 
with  a  dibble. 


Level  of  soil 


Fig.  136. — Nursery  Beds. 

eyes  be  all  at  the  same  level.  The  manure  may  be  placed  at 
the  bottom  of  the  trench,  at  the  opposite  angle.  The  soil 
taken  from  the  slope  is  left  at  the  bottom  of  the  trench,  and 
used  to  cover  the  manure,  and  it  is  in  that  loose  soil  that  the 
base  of  the  cutting  is  placed,  the  soil  being  then  lightly 


254 


AMERICAN    VINES. 


pressed  with  the  foot.  The  manure  or  fertilizers  may  also 
be  placed  on  the  first  layer  of  soil,  but  always  at  a  certain 
distance  (a  few  inches)  from  the  stock,  so  as  not  to  burn  it. 


Level  of  soil 


Fig.  137. — Grafted  Cuttings  placed  in  nursery  rows. 

The  trench  is  then  filled  in  with  soil  from  the  next  trench ; 
and  the  earthing  up  done  with  looser  soil,  as  already 
explained. 

Another  arrangement  which  has  given  us  good  results  may 
be  adopted. 

The  planting  is  done  in  double  rows,  20  cm.  (8  inches) 
apart,  each  group  being  separated  by  an  interval  of  one 
metre  (3ft.  3in.).  The  land  is  previously  worked  in  ridges 
(Fig.  136).  When  the  time  for  planting  has  arrived,  the  top 
of  the  ridge  is  flattened  with  a  spade,  and  a  slope  cut  out  on 


Fig.  138 — Arrangement  of  the  soil. 

both  sides :  the  ridge  becomes  a  prism,  the  section  of  which 
is  a  trapezoid,  the  upper  side  of  which  measures  20  cm. 
(8  inches),  and  the  lower  about  50  cm.  (20  inches).  The 
soil  resulting  from  this  operation  is  rendered  very  friable, 
and  placed  in  the  interval  separating  two  consecutive  ridges 
(Fig.  137)  ;  the  grafted  cuttings  are  placed  on  each  side 

against  the  slopes,  with  the  eyes 
level  with  the  top  angle.  Manure 
may  be  placed  at  the  foot  of  the 
cuttings,  but  not  touching  them, 
and  the  soil  resulting  from  the 
excavation  (Fig.  138)  earthed  up- 
against  them.  This  arrange- 
ment has  the  advantage  of 
facilitating  the  working. 


GRAFTING    AND    NURSERIES. 


255 


The  earthing  up  in  compact  and  clayey  soils  is  not  always 
•easy ;  the  soil  wetted  by  rain  hardens  and  forms  a  crust, 
preventing  the  shooting  of  the  bud.  This  can  be  remedied 
by  placing  sand  round  the  top  eye  as  shown 
in  Fig.  139,  covering  it  entirely.  Covered 
in  this  way,  the  eyes  develop  normally,  and 
success  is  assured. 

The  earthing  -  up  does  not  retard  the 
development  of  the  buds;  it  hastens  it, 
on  the  contrary,  and  does  not  impoverish 
the  scion  in  reserve  matters.  It  only  pre- 
vents— and  this  is  its  only  use — evapora- 
tion from  the  scion  by  sheltering  it  from 
wind  and  sun.  The  water  it  contains  is 
necessary  to  the  production  of  callus  and 
the  development  of  all  the  tissues. 

(c)  Cultural  care. — The  only  cultural 
care  required  is  hoeing  and  scarifying 
when  necessary.  Above  all,  we  must  pre- 
vent weeds  from  growing,  as  they  injure 
the  grafts,  not  only  with  their  roots,  but 
also  by  choking  the  buds  when  they  come 
out. 

Watering  may  be  performed  when  re- 
quired. But  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
allow  the  water  to  reach  above  the  joint, 
so  as  not  to  favour  the  liberation  of  the 
scion,  or  to  hinder  the  formation  of  callus. 

When  watering,  we  may  spread  over 
the  soil  chemical  manures  (nitrates,  super- 
phosphates, etc.),  or  any  other  manure 
acting  rapidly;  this  will  improve  the 
growth  of  the  grafts.  For  knitting  to  be 
perfect,  it  is  indispensable  that  the  in- 
crease in  diameter  of  both  stock  and  scion 
be  as  rapid  as  possible;  a  joint  constituted 
by  only  five  or  six  layers  of  cells  will  Drafted  Cutting 
evidently  be  weaker  than  one  constituted 
by  fifteen  or  twenty  layers.  We  should, 
therefore,  use  every  means  of  increasing  the  growth  of 
the  grafted  cuttings.  This  result  is  attained  by  watering 
in  dry  weather,  and  by  abundant  manuring  with  very  active 
fertilizers. 


Slender  roots  of  the 
stock.  (b)  .  Strong 
roots  of  the  scion. 


256  AMERICAN    VINES. 

(d)  Removal  of  roots  from  the  scion. — In    the    month  of 
July  the  roots  growing  on  the  scion  are  cut  off,  and  the  soil 
earthed  up  again,  although  not  quite  so  high.     This  operation 
is  of  great  importance.     We  know  that  liberated  scions  obtain 
the  bulk   of   their   food   through   their   own   roots;   and   that 
those  of  the  stock,  becoming  useless,  cease  to  develop   (Fig. 
140).  The  stock  remains  weak,  and  consequently  the  joint  is 
defective.      It   is   important   to   have   strong   numerous   roots 
on   the   stock,   together   with   as   strong  a   joint   as   possible; 
this  is  obtained  by  the  removal  of  roots  from  the  scion.     In 
the     month     of      September     the     ridges     are     completely 
leveled,   and  the  joints  exposed  to  the  air  to  lignify.     We 
know  that  the  parts  of  the    vine    buried    underground    are 
always  tender  and  affected  by  cold.     At  the  same  time,  new 
roots  which  may  have   developed   on   the   scion   are   cut  off, 
together   with   the   ligatures    which    might    strangulate     the 
graft. 

However,  for  grafted  cuttings  where  the  stock  develops 
roots  slowly  (Berlandieri*),  it  is  indispensable  to  only  sever 
them  later  on.  The  roots  of  the  scion  serve  to  nourish  the 
plant,  while  the  stock  forms  its  own  roots;  they  should  there- 
fore only  be  removed  when  the  stock  has  rooted. 

(e)  Lifting  grafted  cuttings. — The  grafted  cuttings  may 
be  lifted  in  November  and  preserved  in  bundles  completely 
covered  with  soil.     But  if  they  are  left  in  the  nursery  till  the 
date  of  planting  out,  care  must  be  taken  to  earth  them  up  to 
the  fifth  or  sixth  eye  of  the  shoot,  to  guard  tender  herbaceous 
shoots  against  spring  frosts. 

Well-rooted  plants  knitted  on  both  sides  are  alone  used. 
These  are  known  as  "  first  selection";  those  knitted  on  one 


*  If  the  development  of  the  grafted  cuttings  of  Berlandieri  is  attentively 
watched  from  the  planting  till  the  end  of  summer,  the  following  changes  are 
easily  noticed: — First,  the  knitting  tissue  begins  to  be  formed  between  the  stocks 
and  the  scion,  and  the  scion  commences  to  grow.  This  stage  is  common  to  all 
grafted  cuttings,  whatever  grafting  stock  may  be  employed.  Soon  after,  voung 
rootlets  appear  at  the  base  of  the  scion,  and  nothing  on  the  stock  except  a  more 
or  less  pronounced  pad  at  the  lower  section,  formed  of  healing  tissue.  The 
plant  then  grows  with  the  roots  of  the  scion  until  July.  Late  in  July  or  August 
the  stock  begins  to  form,  just  above  the  pad,  a  few  fine  rootlets.  The  rootlets 
increase  very  rapidly,  and  soon  make  up  for  their  slowness  in  forming.  The 
herbaceous  development  of  the  scion  has  thus  for  two  months  depended  on  its 
own  roots.  The  knitting  tissues  continue  to  be  progressively  formed  at  the _  ex- 
pense of  the  material  elaborated  by  the  scion.  The  reason  that  grafted  cuttings 
grow  better  than  ungrafted  cuttings  of  Berlandieri  is  probablv  due  to  the  active 
life  of  the  scion  the  stock  thus  receiving,  through  the  action  of  the  knitting 
tissue,  the  elaborated  materials  necessary  to  assist  in  it  the  formation  of  root*. 

If  the  roots  on  the  sc'on  are  cut  too  early  before  those  of  the  stock  have 
formed,  the  growth  is'-arrested,  and  both  stock  and  scion  die. 


GRAFTING   AND    NURSERIES. 


257- 


side  only  will  always  be  defective. 
Finally,  those  well  knitted  but  with 
short  slender  shoots  and  badly  devel- 
oped roots  should  be  left  in  the  nursery; 
they  are  termed  "  second  selection." 

Grafting  of  rooted  cuttings. — Bench- 
grafting  on  rooted  cuttings  is  performed 
in  the  same  way.  The  cultural  care  is 
similar.  The  shoots  are  stronger,  the 
knitting  better,  and  therefore  there  is  a 
greater  number  of  plants  of  "  first  selec- 
tion." 

Essential  recommendation.  —  Remove 
carefully,  as  above  directed,  all  the  eyes 
of  the  stock. 

(/)  Diseases. — The  enemies  of  the 
nursery  are  numerous. 

First,  white  grubs.  They  frequently 
do  considerable  damage  in  nurseries,  by 
eating  the  green  bark  of  the  stock,  which 
slowly  dies. 

Bisulphide  of  carbon,  applied  with  an 
injector,  in  quantities  of  Boo  to  1000 
kilos  per  hectare  (about  8  cwt.  of 
bisulphide  per  acre)  before  planting, 
kills  most  of  them.  But  it  is  best  to 
select  a  situation  for  the  nursery  where  there  are  no  grubs. 

J.  Perraud  states  that  an  acarian,  the  Tetranychus  tel- 
larins,  does  damage,  but  there  is  no  known  method  of 
destroying  it. 

When  the  roots  of  the  scion  are  cut  too  late,  the  roots  of  the  Berlandieri  grow 
very  slowly.  Those  on  the  scion  obtain  a  preponderance,  and  it  grows  in- 
dependantly.  The  growth  of  the  stock  becomes  arrested,  and  when  the  roots 
of  the  scion  are  removed,  the  slender  roots  of.  the  stock  are  insufficient  to  nourish 
the  grafted  cutting,  and  it  dies  slowly. 

We  see  that  the  roots  of  the  scion  must  be  severed  neither  too  soon  nor  t6o 
late.  Success  with  grafted  cuttings  of  Berlandieri  depends  only  on  attention  to 
these  details 

It  is  easy  to  state  precisely  the  proper  time  to  sever  the  roots,  which  should 
not  be  before  the  end  of  July  Tn  various  regions,  the  southern  for  instance, : 
the  time  for  cutting  them  varies  from  the  2oth  July  to  2oth  August  (in  France). 
But  for  greater  security  it  is  better  to  inspect  the  butts  of  a  few  grafted  cuttings 
and  only  cut  the  roots  off  the  scion  when  they  have  commenced  to  grow  on  the 
Berlandieri  stock  also. 

The  time  for  severing  the  roots  is  not  the  same  for  all  vines.  The  Carignane 
scion,  for  example,  whose  roots  are  produced  very  strongly  and  rapidly,  requires 
to  be  cut  much  earlier.  In  so  doing  with  grafted  cuttings  on  Berlandieri,  it 
yields  quite  as  large  a  percentage  of  takes,  with  well-developed  roots  on  the  stock 
as  with  the  Riparia  and  the  Rupestris. 


Fig.   141 
Pourndie. 


258 


AMERICAN   VINES. 


Coniothyrium  diplodiella,  or  white  rot,  grows  sometimes 
on  the  young  shoots  and  kills  them.  It  is  easily  treated 
with  Bordeaux  mixture. 

Pourridie  (Fig.  141)  causes  great  damage  in  nurseries. 
Up  to  the  present  there  is  no  real  remedy.  As  soon  as  detected 
in  a  nursery,  it  is  best  to  discontinue  planting  in  that  spot 
for  two  or  three  years. 

Mildew  is  also  serious,  as  it  causes  the  leaves  to  fall  pre- 
maturely, and  stops  the  growth  of  the  plant,  the  formation 
of  knitting  tissue,  the  maturing  of  the  shoots,  and  the  develop- 
ment of  roots.  As  the  tender  shoots  of  the  young  plant  are 
very  sensitive  to  its  action,  Bordeaux  mixture  should  be  used 
frequently  (six  or  eight  times  during  the  summer). 

Fibrillaria  (Psctthyrella  ampelina)  grows  sometimes  be- 
tween the  surfaces  of  the  sections  at  the  joint,  in  the  form 
of  a  thick  white  coat,  thus  preventing  the 
healing  tissue  of  the  scion  reaching  the  stock, 
and  vice  versa.  Its  damages  are  not  very 
considerable.  It  is  easily  checked  by 
watering  the  stock  with  a  10  per  cent,  solu- 
tion of  sulphate  of  iron. 

Sderotinia  Fuckeliana  (Fig.  142),  or  Bot- 
rytis cinerea,  does  a  little  harm  to  the 
grafted  cuttings  when  stratified  in  wet  sand. 
To  avoid  this  it  is  only  necessary  to  use  dry 
sand  for  stratification.  The  Scl.  Fuckeliana 
forms  at  the  level  of  the  tongues  and 
clefts,  hard  black  warty  nodules,  about 
one-eighth  of  an  inch  thick.  They  are 
wedge-shaped,  and  by  their  intrusion  be- 
tween the  joints  prevent  the  latter  adher- 
ing to  each  other.  The  surfaces  become 
dry,  and  the  formation  of  knitting  tissue 
prevented.  The  grafting  stock  may  form 
roots  in  the  nursery,  but  the  scion  soon 
becomes  dry. 

The  Botrytis  cinerea  sometimes  attacks  branches  pre- 
served in  too  damp  soil.  Its  mycelium  pentrates  their  tissues 
and  kills  them. 


Fig.  142. 
Botrytis  Cinerea. 


GRAFTING   AND    NURSERIES. 


259 


V. HERBACEOUS  GRAFTING. 

According  to  Hermann  Goethe's  work,  from  which  we 
extract  the  following,  herbaceous  grafting  has  been  a  common 
practice  in  Hungary  for  the  last  half-century,  although 
exceptionally  used  in  connection  with  vines. 

The  cultivation  of  American  vines  drew  the  attention  of 
viticulturists  to  this  method,  which  belongs  rather  to  the 


Fig.  143. 

Herbaceous  Graft  knitter!.  The  scion 
developed  a  shoot  (a,  b).  (After 
H.  Goethe.) 


Fig.  144. 

Stock  prepared  for  the  herbaceous 
graft.  (After  H.  Goethe.) 


domain  of  horticulture,  and  it  is  now  applied  on  a  large 
scale  for  the  reconstitution  of  vineyards  destroyed  by 
phylloxera.  The  results  obtained  are  good,  the  percentage 
of  strikes  often  reaching  90  per  cent. 

It  has  been  tried  in  France  in  several  districts,  but  the 
result  has  not  always  been  very  satisfactory,  and  for  differ- 
ent reasons,  which  we  cannot  study  here,  it  has  generally  been 
discarded. 


260  AMERICAN    VINES. 

Figs.  143  to  148  show  the  mode  of  execution  of  this  graft. 

1st.  The  stock  (growing)  and  the  scion,  both  herbaceous, 
are  prepared  in  the  same  way  as  for  a  whip-tongue  graft; 
they  are  joined  in  the  same  way  and  ligatured  with  rubber. 

2nd.  Or  again,  they  may  be  prepared  as  for  an  ordinary 
splice  graft  and  ligatured  as  above. 

3rd.  Or  again,  a  kind  of  side  cleft-graft  is  made,  pinching 
the  shoot  above  the  joint.  (Figs.  143  and  144.) 


Fig.     145.  Fig.     146.  Fig.  147. 

Herbaceous  Graft  Scion.         Same  ligatured.    (After       Section  showing  the  Union 
(After  H.  Goethe.)  H.  Goethe.)  of    a  herbaceous   graft 

(After    H.   Goethe.) 

The  sections  of  both  scion  and  stock  are  made  on  a  node; 
this  increases  the  strike,  for  reasons  given  above. 

These  grafts  are  made  in  June,  selecting  the  most  vigorous 
shoots  as  stock.  Two  or  three  weeks  later  the  eye  of  the 
scion  bursts,  and  the  wood  ripens  normally. 

Budding. — Herbaceous  budding  has  not  been  much 
applied  to  vines.  It  has  been  modified  lately,  and  complete 
details,  which  we  cannot  give  here,  will  be  found  in  Bulletin 


GRAFTING  AND   NURSERIES.  26l 

No.  146  Ag.  Exp.  St.,  Berkeley,  Cal.  They  tend  to  render 
the  operation  more  practical,  but  it  is  always  rather  delicate 
of  execution.  The  operation  is  performed  in  the  following 
manner  (Figs.  148-150)  : — 

"  The  bud  is  excised  with  a  sharp  grafting  knife  from  the 
shoot  of  the  variety  to  be  multiplied.  This  is  done  when 
the  shoot  reaches  its  complete  development, 
that  is  to  say  when  the  length  is  at  least  a 
foot.  The  buds  of  the  apex  of  the  shoot 
cannot  be  used,  as  they  are  not  as  vigorous 
as  those  of  the  base  and  mean  part.  We 
may  also,  in  July,  excise  buds  from 
secondary  shoots  developed  after  pinching. 
The  bud  must  be  herbaceous  and  well 
formed. 

"  The  shield  is  about  I  to  1%  inches  in 
length.  A  layer  of  cellular  tissue  I  to 
2  mms.  in  thickness  is  preserved  under 
the  bark  to  prevent  the  bud  from  drying. 
This  wood  must  be  preserved  under  the 
whole  shield ;  without  this  precaution  the 
desiccation  of  the  bark  would  be  inevitable.  Fig.  148 

The   length   and   width   of   the    shield   vary     'repars\1°?d  °f  thc 
according  to  the  size  of  the  stock. 

"  A  certain  number  of  scions  can  be  prepared  and  used 
during  a  few  hours,  being  careful  to  preserve  them  in  damp 
moss,  or  better,  in  water.  The  leaves  are  cut  at  the  middle 
of  a  petiole. 

"  The  stock  is  a  shoot  of  the  year,  well  developed,  and  in  a 
suitable  position. 

"  On  a  herbaceous  internode  at  the  base  of  a  bud  a  longi- 
tudinal incision  is  made  il/2  to  2  inches  in  length,  the  two 
sides  of  the  incision  being  raised  with  the  haft  of  the  graft- 
ing knife. 

"  The  scion  or  shield  is  then  inserted  in  the  slit  of  the 
stock.  This  is  done  by  inserting  first  one  side  of  the  shield 
under  the  bark  of  the  stock,  then  raising  the  bark  with  the 
haft  of  the  grafting-knife  and  inserting  the  other  side  in  the 
same  way.  This  operation  is  rendered  very  easy  by  slightly 
bending  the  shoot  inwards.  The  graft  is  bound  with  wood 
or  cotton. 

"  The  knitting  requires  from  ten  to  twelve  days,  and  may 
be  recognized  by  the  fresh  state  of  the  scion  and  the  union 


262 


AMERICAN    VINES. 


between  the  cambium  of  both  stock  and  scion.     At  this  stage 
the  ligature  is  removed. 

"  When  budding  is  performed  during  the  first  months  of 
vegetation,  that  is  to  say  with  growing  eye,  we  obtain  the 
first  year  a  straight  shoot,  which  may  bear  fruit  the  follow- 


Fig.  140. 
Salgues  Budding. 


Knitted  bud 


ligature  is  removd. 


ing  year.  In  this  case  one  should  shorten  the  stock  5  to  6 
inches  above  the  graft  as  soon  as  the  latter  is  knitted.  If, 
on  the  contrary,  budding  is  only  performed  in  July  or  the 
beginning  of  August,  that  is  to  say  with  dormant  eyes,  this 
latter  operation  is  useless,  as  the  bud  only  starts  growing  the 
following  year."* 

Budding  might  render  great  services  with  varieties  not 
rooting  freely,  such  as  Berlandieris.  The  canes  of  this 
cepage  might  be  budded  on  a  layer, .  thus  giving  a  grafted 
rootling. 


*  J.  Gabarret:    De  la  %reffe  en  ecusson  de  la  vigne:    Greffe  Salines. 


APPENDIX. 


263 


APPENDIX. 


TABLE  No.   1. 

COMPARATIVE  STATISTICS  OF  AMERICAN  VINES  AND 
INSECTICIDES  IN  FRANCE. 


Years. 

American 
Vines. 

Carbon 
Bi-sulphide. 

Sulpho-carb. 
of  Potassium 

Submersions. 

Annual 
increase  of 
American  Vines 

1880 

Acres. 

16,102 

Acres. 

13,867 

Acres. 

3,680 

Acres. 

20,232 

Acres. 

? 

1881 

22,260 

39,832 

7,022 

20,487 

6,158 

1882 

42,735 

42,802 

7,582 

31,357 

20,475 

1883 

70,030 

58,065 

7,742 

44,480 

27,295 

1884 

130,192 

83,615 

13,215 

58,261 

60,162 

1885 

188,230 

101,462 

13,067 

60,847 

58,038 

1886 

276,967 

118,037 

11,147 

61,250 

88,737 

1887 

413,792 

165,512 

22,050 

66,662 

136,825 

1888 

535,817 

166,762 

20,222 

83,637 

122,025 

1889 

749,502 

143,707 

22,102 

75,840 

213,685 

1890 

1,090,045 

155,595 

23,442 

80,955 

340,543 

1891 

1,130,705 

? 

? 

? 

40,660 

1892 

1,323,650 

? 

? 

? 

192,945 

1893 

1,521,532 

? 

? 

? 

197.882 

1894 

1,658,035 

126,130 

21,860 

88,312 

136,502 

TABLE  No.  2. 

DECREASE  OF  CARBON  BI-SULPHIDE,  COMPARED  WITH 
THE  INCREASE  IN  AREA  OF  AMERICAN  VINES  IN  THE 
DEPARTEMENTS  WHERE  CARBON  BI-SULPHIDE  HAS 
BEEN  MOST  USED. 


Departements. 

Carbon  Bi-sulphide. 

American  Vines. 

Acres. 

Acres 

Aude 

.  U887 
U894 

39,750 

7,875 

50,500 
288,500 

Haute  Garonne     .  . 

..  J1889 
H894 

14,852 
1,500 

14,295 
31,250 

Gironde 

..  J1889 
H894 

19,290 
17,792 

47,815 
101,825 

Rhone 

..  J1887 
/1894 

33,255 
20,305 

2,532 
32,907 

Cote  d'Or 

..  (1891 
11894 

10.625 
4,235 

5,000 
13,832  (1885) 

264 


AMERICAN     VINES. 


8 


3    (S 


Vines  treate 
with  sulpho 
carbonate. 


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APPENDIX, 


TABLE  No.  4. 


265 


COMPARATIVE  IMPORTANCE  OF  AMERICAN  VINES  AND  OF 
INSECTICIDES  IN  HERAULT,  IN  RATIO  TO  THE  AREA, 
EXPRESSED  AS  100,  OF  THE  TOTAL  VINEYARDS  OF  THE 

DEPARTEMENT. 


Years. 

American  vines. 

Insecticides. 

1880 
1881 

2.8  per  cent. 
7.3  *  "      " 

2.8  per  cent. 
7.3     " 

1883 

31.0     "      " 

6.5     " 

n 

1884 

42.0     "      " 

2.2     " 

n 

1885 

48.0     "      " 

3.4     " 

n 

1886 

62.0     "      " 

3.0     " 

n 

1887 

60.0     "      " 

4.0     " 

n 

1888 

76.0     "      " 

30     " 

n 

1889 

78.0     "      " 

2.0     " 

n 

1890 

80.0     "      " 

1.0     " 

n 

1891 

83.0     "      " 

1.28  " 

n 

1892 

86.0     "      " 

0.0     " 

n 

1893 

87.0     *      " 

0.7     " 

n 

1894 

88.0     "      " 

0.32  * 

n 

1895 

94.0     "      " 

03     " 

n 

266  AMERICAN  VINES. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


A. 

AUDOYNAUD. — Adaptation  au  sol  des  cepages  americains  (Journal  de 
TAgriculture,  1881,  Vol.  II,  p.  302.) 

B. 

BAI/TET  (Ch.) — L'Art  de  greffer  (se  edition,  1893,  Paris,  Masson). 

BETHMONT  (D.) — Essai  des  vignes  en  tejrains  calcaires  (Revue  de  Viti- 
culture 1894  et  1895). 

BUSH  AND  SON  AND  MEISSNER. — Illustrated  descriptive  Catalogue  of 
American  grape-vines  (1895,  Saint-Louis;  traduit  en  fran9ais 
par  J.-E.  Planchon  et  L.  Bazille.  C.  Coulet,  Montpellier). 

C. 

CAHUZAC.— La  Greffe  en  ecusson,  1885. 

CAZEAUX-CAZAI,ET  (G.)—  Notice  sur  le  greffage  des  vignes  americaines 

(Bordeaux,  Feret,  1884). 

"     Instruction  pratique  de  la  greffe  d'ete  (Bordeaux,  Feret,  1888). 
"     Divers  zXBulletin  du  Cornice  de  Cadillac  (1886-1895). 
CHAMPIN  (A.) — Traite  theoiique  et  pratique  du  grefFage. 
CHAUZIT  B.) — Recherches  chimiques  sur  quelques  terrains  ou  1'on  a 
plant  e  la  vigne  americaine  (Messager  agricole,  25  septembre 
1880). 
"     Etat  actuel   de  la  question  du  phylloxera  en  France  (Nimes, 

1885). 
"     Etude  sur  1'adaptation  au  sol  des  vignes  americaines  (1889. — In 

Une  Mission  viticole,  par  P.  Viala,  p.  3O3~375)- 
"     Role  de  l-'argile  dans  1'adaptation  au  sol  des  plants  americains 

(Revue  de  viticulture,  1894). 

CORNU  (Max). — Le  Phylloxera  vastatrix  (avec  planches,  Paris,  1878). 
COUDERC  (G.) — Etude  sur  Phybridation  artificielle  de  la  vigne  (Mont- 
pellier, 1887). 

"     Conference  de  Beaune  (octobre  1891). 
"     Catalogue  pour  1889-1890  des  hybrids  obtenus  par  M.  G.  Couderc 

(Aubenas,  Ardeche). 

"     Divers  in  Progres  agricole  (1890-1895). 

"     Conference  sur  les  hybrids  (Congres  de  Macon,  1887,  Congres 
de  Chamb6ry,  1890,  Congres  de  Beaune,  1891. 

D. 

DANIEI,  (L.) — Sur  la  greffe  (Comptes  rendus  Academic  des  Sciences, 
1891  a  1895.) 

DAUREI,  (J-) — Traite  pratique  de  Viticulture  (Bordeaux,  1895). 

DAVIN  (G.) — Hybridation  des  vignes  (la  Provence  horticole,  mars 
1888). 

DEJARDIN. — Recherches  et  observations  sur  la  resistance  de  la  vigne 
au  phylloxera  (Paris,  Masson). 

DEGRUUyY  (L.) — Plants  americains  en  sols  calcaires  (C.  Coulet,  Mont- 
pellier, 1895). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY.  267 

DEGRUiyi/Y  (Iv.)  et  VIAI,A  (P.) — Les  vignes  amdricaines  a  1'Ecole 
nationale  d'agriculture  de  Montpellier  (Montpellier,  Coulet, 
1884). 

DESPERRIERE  (G.) — Ecussonnage  de  la  vigne  en  vert  (Revue  de  viti- 
culture, 1894). 

DESPETis  (Dr). — Note  sur  les  Riparias  et  sur  leur  classification  au 
point  de  vue  agricole  (Bull.  Soc.  cent.  agr.  Herault,  Moiit- 
pellier,  1879,  p.  417). 

"  Traite  pratique  de  la  culture  des  vignes  am£ricaines  (Mont- 
pellier, C.  Coulet,  1889). 

DROUHAUI/T  (B.) — Greffage  normal  de  la  vigne  en  ecusson  (Revue  de 
viticulture,  1895). 

DURAND  (E.) — Qualite  des  vins  des  vignes  greflfees  sur  Rupestris  et 
Franco-Rupestris  (Revue  de  viticulture,  1895). 

F. 

FOEX  (G.) — Notes  relatives  aux  eflfets  produits  par  le  phylloxera  sur 
les  racines  de  divers  cepages  americains  et  indigenes  (Comptes 
rendus  Acad.  scienc.,  18  d£cembre  1876  et  15  Janvier  1877). 

"  Note  relative  aux  circonstauces  meteorologiques  qui  ont  influe 
sur  la  marche  de  la  chlorose  des  vignes  americames  a  1'Ecole 
nationale  d'agriculture  de  Montpellier,  pendant  les  annees 
1884,  1885,  1886,  1887,  1888,  1889,  et  1890.  (Ann.  Ecol.  nat. 
agric.  Montpellier,  Vol.  V,  1890.) 

"     Manuel  pratique  de  viticulture  (Montpellier,  C.  Coulet,  6e  edition, 

1899). 

Sur  les  causes  de  la  chlorose  chez  I'Herbemont  (Ann.  de  1'Ecole 
nat.  d'agr.  de  Montpellier,  1882  &  1891). 

"     Cours  complet  de  viticulture  (4e  edition,  Montpellier,  Coulet, 

1895)- 
FOEX  (G.)  et  VIALA  (P.) — Ampelographie  americaine  (i  vol.  in  folio, 

avec  80  planches  phoiotypiques,  1883). 

"  Recherches  relatives  au  diame're  reciproque  des  sujets  et  des 
greffons  (Vigne  americaine,  1885.) 

G. 

GABARRET  (J.) — De  la  greffe  en  <§cusson  de  la  vigne.     Greffe  Salgues. 
GANZIN. — De  1'hybridation  artificielle  et  des  services  qu'on  pent  en 

attendre  pour  1'avenir  de  la  viticulture  (Revue  scientifique, 

1881,  Vol.  XXVIII,  p.  143). 
"     Les  Hybrides  k  production  directe  (Revue  de  viticulture,  1894 

et  1895). 

GIRERD  (Ferdinand). — Le  Guide  pratique  pour  greffer  (Lyon,  1890). 
GODOT. — Traitement  de  la  chlorose,  action  des  badigeonnages  (Revue 

de  viticulture,  Vol.  IV,  1895). 
GcETHE   (Hermann).  —  Ueber    das     Veredeln    der    Reben    (Ampelo- 

graphische  Berichte,  mai  1880). 
"     Stazione  sperimentale  per  lo  studio  biologico  della  vite  (tradu- 

zione  del  tedesco  di  Giuseppe  Velicogna.  Gorizia,  1891). 
GRIS  (Arthur). — Recherches  microscopiques sur  la  chlorophylle(Annales 

des  sciences  naturelles  4e  s^rie,  Vol.  VII,  1857,  p.  179). 
GuiU<ON  (J.-M.) — Experiences  sur  le  traitement   de   la  chlorose   et 

divers  in  Revue  de  viticulture,  1894,  1895,  1896.) 


AMERICAN  VINES. 

H. 

HOUDAH.I.E  et  SEMICHON. — Le  Calcaire  et  la  Chlorose  (Revue  de  viti- 
culture, 1894). 

HOUDAH,I,E  et  MAZADE. — L'Humidite  du  sol  et  la  Chlorose  (Revue  de 

viticulture,  1894). 

"  Le  Rupestris  du  Lot  en  terrain  calcaire  (Revue  de  viticulture, 
1895.) 

J. 

JEANJEAN  (A.) — La  Geologic  agricole  appliquee  &  la  culture  de  la 
vigne  dans  le  departeraent  du  Gard  (Montpellier  C.  Coulet, 
1887). 

JOUUE  (H.) — Sur  la  chlorose  de  la  vigne  (Journal  d'agriculture  pratique, 
1889). 

L. 

LAVERGNE  (G.) — Un  Vignobles  dans  1'Agenais  (et  divers,  in  Revue  de 

viticulture,  1894,^1895). 
LENE  (K.) — La  Reconstitution  dans  les  terrains  calcaires,  emploi  de 

1'argile  (Revue  de  viticulture,  1895,  Vol.  IV). 

M. 

MARGUERITE-DEI/ACHARDONNAY   (P.)  —  Le  Fer  dans  le   vegetation 

(Journal  d'agriculture  pratique,  1890). 
MARRE  (E.) — Greffage  en  <§cusson  de  la  vigne  (1891). 
MAYET  (V.) — Les  rongeurs  de  boutures  et  de  greffes  (Revue  de  viti- 
culture, Vol.  II,  1894). 

MAZADE  (M.1) — De  1'ecussonnage  en  placage  a  bois  sec  (Revue  de  viti- 
culture, Vol.  I,  1894). 

"     Etude  sur  les  Rupestris  (Revue  de  viticulture,  Vol.  I,  1894). 

"     Etude  sur  les  Berlandieri  (Revue  de  viticulture,  Vol.  V,  1896). 

"     Du  Berlandieri  et  de  la  greffe-bouture  (Revue  de  viticulture, 

Vol.  I,  1894). 
MII,I,ARDBT.— Pourridie  et  Phylloxera  (Bordeaux,  Feret,  1879). 

"  Bouturage  et  grefifage  des  vignes  am^ricaines  (Journal  d'agri- 
culture pratique,  Vol.  I,  1881,  p.  729). 

"  Notes  sur  les  vignes  ame'ricaines,  resistance  au  phylloxera;  de 
1'adaptation  au  sol  et  au  climat  (Journal  d'agriculture 
pratique,  Vol.  I,  pp.  81,  157,  400,  531). 

11  De  1'hybridation  entre  diverses  esp6ces  de  vignes  atn^ricaines  a 
I'd* at  sauvage  (Journal  d'agriculture  pratique,  1882,  Vol.  II, 
p.  470). 

"  Historic  des  principales  variety's,  et  especes  de  vignes  d'orieine 
americaine  qui  resistent  au  phylloxera  (i  vol.  in-folio.  1885, 
avec  24  planches;  Paris,  Masson;  Bordeaux,  Feret). 

"  Note  sur  les  vignes  americaines  (series  I,  II,  et  III,  1885  &  1888; 
Bordeaux,  Feret;  Paris,  Masson). 

"  Note  sur  les  resultats  de  1'hybridation  de  la  vigne  (Congres 
international  d'agriculture  de  Parip  1889,  p.  714). 

"  Essai  sur  1'hybridation  de  la  vigne  (Revue  des  Pyrenees,  Vol. 
Ill,  1891,  pp.  471-499). 

"  Sur  les  r^sultats  generaux  de  1'hybridation  de  la  vigne  (Revue 
de  viticulture,  Vol.  I,  1894). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  269 

MII,I,ARDET  et  DE  GRASSET. — Catalot^ue  des  hybrids  de  vignes  obtenug 
dtpuis  1'annee  1880  &  1892  inclusivement  (Revue  de  viticul- 
ture, Vol.  I,  1894). 

MII^ARDET  et  DE  GRASSET.  — Un  porte-greffe  pour  les  terrains  crayeux, 
Chasselas  X  Berlandieri  n°  41  B  (Revue  de  viticulture,  Vol. 
II,  1894). 

MUNSON  (  T.-V.) — Les  vignes  americaines  en  Amerique  (Revue  de  viti- 
culture, 1894,  1895,  1896). 
"     Explorations  viticoles  dans  le  Texas  (Revue  de  viticulture,  Vol. 

II,  1894). 

"     Les  port es-greffes  des  terrains  crayeux  sees  (Revue  de  viticul- 
ture, Vol.  Ill,  1895). 

N. 

NARBONNE  (Paul).— La  Chlorose  de  la  vigne,  preservation  et  traite- 
ment  (Narbonne,  1888). 

P. 

PERRAUD  (J.)— La  resistance  du  Vialla  en  Beaujolais  (Revue  de  viti- 
culture, 1894  et  1895). 

PETiT  (Kmile)  — La  chlo-ose,  recherche  de  ses  causes  et  de  ses  remedes 
(Bordeaux,  1888). 

PETioT.— Les  vignes  americaines  c'ans  la  cote  chalonaise  (Congies  de 
Beaune,  1891). 

PI<ANCHON  (J.-E.) — Les  vign«s  americaines    leur  culture,  etc.     Mont- 

pellier,  Coulet,  1875). 

"     Le   Cottis  ou  pousse  en   ortille,   maUdie  des  sarnients  de  la 
vigne  (Vigne  americaine,  1882,  p.  232). 

PONSOT  (Mme  Ve). — Les  vigues  atnuricaines  (Bordeaux,  Fertt,  1890). 

PUI<I,IAT  (V.) — Manuel  du  greffeur  de  vignes  (Montpellier,  Coulet, 
1885). 

R. 

RASSIGUIER  (Dr). — Traitement  de  la   chlorose    (diver? ,    in  Revue   de 

viticulture,  1895). 
RATHAY  (Emerich). — Die  Geschlechtsverhaeltniss  der  Reben  (Wien, 

1888). 
RAVAZ  (L.) — Excursion  dans  les  vignobles  de  l'He"rault  (1888). 

"     Monographic  du   Portugais  bleu  et  du  Saint-Sauveur  (Progres 

agncole  et  viticole,  1886). 
"     Recherches  sur  le  boulurage  de  la  vigne  (Comptes  rendus  de 

1'Academie  des  sciences,  15  septembre,  1890). 
"     Articles    divers,    in   Journal     du    Syndicat    de    la    Charente- 

In'erieure. 
"     Rapports  a  M.  le  President  du  Comit^  de  viticulture  de  Parron- 

dissement  de  Cognac  (Cognac,  1889  £  1896). 
"     Les  Vignes  americaines;  resistance  au  phylloxera  et  resistance 

a  la  chlorose  (Cognac,  1895). 
"     Defoncement  et  plantation  dans  les  terrains  calcaires  (Revue  de 

viticulture,  1895). 
"     Le  Riparia  du  Colorado  (Revue  de  viticulture,  1894). 

Divers,  in  Revue  de  viticulture  (1894,  1895,  1896). 
"     Les  Riparias,  les  Rupestris,  les  Berlandieri  (Revue  de  viticul- 
ture, Vol.  Ill,  1895). 
"     Choix  des  porte-greffes  (Revue  de  viticulture,  Vol.  IV,  1895). 


270  AMERICAN  VINES. 

RAVAZ  et  GOUIRAND.—  Recherches  sur  l'affinit<§  des  vignes  greffees 
(Revue  de  viticulture,  Vol.  I  et  Vol.  II,  1894). 

RouGiER  (L.)  —  Instructions  pratiques  sur  la  reconstitution  des 
vignobles  pir  les  c^pages  americains  (2e  Edition,  1890;  Mont- 
pellier,  Coulet). 

S. 

SACHS  (J.) — Sur  le  traitement  des  plantes  chlorotiques  (Arbeiten  des 
hot.  Institute  zur  Wiirzburg,  III,  433;  Wollnys  Forschungen, 
XII,  130). 

SAHUT  (Felix). — L"s  vignes   americaines,    leur   greffage  et  leur  taille 

(Montpellier,  C.  Coulet,  1887). 

"  De  1'adaptation  des  vignes  americaines  au  sol  et  au  climat 
suivie  d'une  etude  sur  le  bouturage  a  un  ceil  (Montpellier  et 
Toulouse,  1888). 

"  La  Jaunisse  ou  chlorose  des  vignes  (Montpellier,  C.  Coulet, 
1890). 

SAINT-POI,  (Vicomte  de). — JEnquete  sur  les  vignes  americaines  (Bul- 
letin de  la  Societies  agriculteurs  de  France,  1890-1891). 

SAIGAS  Y  AMAT. — Histoire  d'une  vigne  en  terrains  tres  calcaires  (Revue 
de  viticulture,  1895). 

STOU,  (R.) — Ueber  die  Bildung  des  Kallus  bei  Stecklingen  (Bot. 
Zeitung,  1874). 

T. 

TAI,I,AVIGNES. — GrefFes  aeriennes  de  la  vigne  (Revue  de  viticulture, 

Vol.  I,  1895). 
TORD  (Max).— Recherches  sur  le  traitement  des  vignes  chlorotiques. 

V. 

VKRNEUIL  (A.)— Le  champ  d'essai  deConteneil  (Revue  de  viticulture, 

1895  et  1896). 
VIAI,A  (P.) — Des  soins  a  donner  aux  grefFes  (1884). 

"     Les  Hybrides-Bouschet  (Montpellier,  Coulet,  1886). 
"     Les  Maladies  de  la  vigne  (3e  Edition,  1895,  C.  Coulet,  Mont- 
pellier). 
"•     Une  Mission  viticole  en  Am^rique  (1889,  i  vol.  avec  8  planches 

en    chromo;     C.    Coulet,    edittur,    Montpellier;     Paris,    G. 

Masson). 
"     Mission    viticole    pour    la    reconsiitution    des     vignobles    du 

departement  de  Maine-et-Loire  (Angers,  Hudon,  1890) 
"     La  reconstitution  des  vignobles  de  la  Cote-d'Or  (Beaune,  1891). 
"     La  reconstitution  des  vignobles  de  la  Loire-Inferieure  (Nantes, 

i  vol.  in-i2,  1891). 

"     Une  Maladie  des  grefFes -boutu res  (Revue  de  botanique,  1891). 
"     Monographic  du  Pourridie  des  vignes  et  des  arbres  fruitiers  (C. 

Coulet,  Montpellier,  avec  7  planches,  1891). 
"     Mission  viticole  pour  la  reconstitution  des  vignobles  de  1'Allier 

(1893)- 
"     Mission  viticole  pour  la  reconstitution  des  vignobles  de  1'Yonne 

(1894). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  271 

ViALA    Mission  viticole  pour  la  reconstitution  des  vignobles  du  Puy-de 

Dome  (1895) 
"     De  I1  action  ie  certaines  substances  toxiques  sur  la  vigne  (Revue 

de  viticulture,  Vol.  I,  1894). 

Le  boutur*geduBerlandieri  (Revue  de  viticulture,  Vol.  I,  1894). 
Divers  in  Revue  oe  viticulture  (1894,  1895,  1896). 
Le  champs  d'experiences  du  "Mas  de  las   Sorres"   (Revue  de 

viticulture,  Vol.  V,  1896). 

Les  Rupestris  Mission  (Revue  de  viticulture,  1895). 
Varies  de   V.  Monticold  (Revue  de  viticulture,  Vol.  V,  1896). 
Le  Rupesiris  duLot  (Revue  de  viticulture,  Vol.  IV,  1895). 
VIAI,A  et  MAZADE. — La  multiplication  du  Berlandieri  (Revue  de  viti- 
culture, 1895). 
VIAI,A  (P.)  et  NANOT  (J.)— Tableau  du  greffage  de  la  vigne  (Mont- 

pellie'-,  C.  Coulet,  1892). 
"     Tableaux  des  cr.urs  de  viticulture  et  d'arboriculture  de  1'Insti- 

tu  e  nationale  agronomique  (1890). 
VIAI.A    (P.)    et   RAVAZ    (L.)-La   melanose    (Montpellier,    C.   Coulet, 

1887). 

Le  Black  Rot  et  le  Coniothyrium  diplodiella  (2e  Edition,  Mont- 
pellier, C.  Coulet,  1888). 

Le  bouturage  en  pousse  (Revue  de  viticulture,  1894). 
VIAI^I^A  (Louis).— Observations  sur  la  plantation  des  cepages  anie"ri- 

cains  (Montpellier,  Grollier,  1877). 

"  Des  vigtitfs  atnericaines  et  des  terrains  qui  leur  conviennent  (in 
Messager  agricole,  10  octobre  1878,  et  Messager  du  Midi  des 
2  et  3  septembre,  1878). 

VIVIER  (A.) — Traitement  au  sulfate  de  fer  centre  la  chlorose  (Revue 
de  viticulture,  Vol.  IV,  1895). 

W. 

WICHCJRA.—  Die  B  istard  Befruchtung  im    Pflanzenreich   erlaiitert  an 

den  Bastarden  der  Weiden  (1865). 
WOCHTING    (ti .) — De    la   transplantation    sur   le   crops  de   la   plante 

(Botanische  Zeitung,  1893). 

Z. 

ZACHAREWTCZ  et  TACUSSEI*. — Champ  d'experiences  en  terrain  calcaire 
(Revue  de  viticulture,  1896). 


2/2  AMERICAN    VINES. 


GLOSSARY     OF     PRINCIPAL    SCIENTIFIC 
TERMS   USED  IN   PRESENT 
VOLUME* 


ABNORMAL — Contrary  to  the  general  rule. 

ABORTIVE — An  organ  or  flower  is  said  to  be  abortive  when  its  develop- 
ment has  been  arrested  at  a  very  early  stage. 

ACUMINATE,  leaf  (Bot.) — Ending  in  sharp  point. 

ADAPTABILITY — The  quality  of  being  capable  of  adaptation. 

ADAPTATION — When  speaking  of  a  plant,  that  act  or  process  of  adapt- 

.  .<-••  --ing  itself  to  certain  conditions  of  the  surroundings. 

ALLUVIAL  (Geol.) — Composed  of  alluvium;  relating  to  the  deposits 
made  by  flowing  waters,  washed  away  from  one  place  and  de- 
posited in  another  as  alluvial  soil. 

ALPINE  DILUVIUM  (Geol.) — A  deposit  of  superficial  loam,  sand,  gravel, 
stone,  etc.,  caused  by  former  action  of  flowing  waters,  or  the 
melting  of  glacial  ice  in  the  Alp  ranges,  south  of  France. 

AMPELOPSIS  -(Bot.) — A  family  of  plants  closely  related  to  Vitis,  com- 
monly called  Virginian  creepers. 

ANALOGOUS — See  Analogy. 

ANALOGY — That  resemblance  of  structure  which  depends  upon  simi- 
larity of  relations.  Such  structures  are  said  to  be  analogous  or 
analogues  to  each  other. 

ANASTOMOSIS — Intercommunication  between  two  or  more  vessels. 

ANTHERS  (Bot.) — The  summits  of  the  stamens  of  flowers  in  which  the 
pollen  or  fertilizing  dust  is  produced. 

APEX  (Bot.) — The  tip,  top,  point,  or  summit  of  a  leaf  or  stem. 

ARANEOUS  (Bot.) — Cobweblike;  extremely  thin  and  delicate  down  on 
vine  leaves. 

ATAVISM — See  Reversion. 

ATROPINE — A  white  crystallizable  poison,  extracted  from  different 
plants,  remarkable  for  its  power  of  dilating  the  pupil  of  the  eye. 

AUTOFECUNDATION — Self-impregnation. 

BATHONIAN — Applied  to  rocks  belonging  to  a  certain  division  of  the 
Jurassic  age.  The  term  refers  to  the  age  of  the  rocks  alone,  and 
not  to  their  character  or  composition. 

BIFURCATION — A  forking  or  division  into  two  branches 

BINARY  HYBRID — Hybrid  resulting  from  the  crossing  of  two  c6pages 
only. 

BLOOM — When  speaking  of  fruit,  the  delicate,  powdery  external  coat- 
ing, as  on  grapes. 

CALCAREOUS — Partaking  of  the  nature  of  limestone. 

CALYX — The  outer  covering  of  a  flower. 

CAMBIUM  (Bot.) — A  series  of  formative  cells  lying  outside  the  wood 
proper  and  inside  of  the  inner  bark;  the  growth  of  the  new  wood 
takes  place  in  the  Cambium,  which  is  very  soft. 

*This  Glossarv  has  been  given  because  several  viticulturists  have  complained  thai  some 
of  the  terms  used  in  previous  publications  were  unintelligible  to  them  —  (Trans.) 


GLOSSARY.  273 

CAMBRIAN  FORMATION  (Geol.) — A  series  of  very  ancient  palaeozoic 
rocks, between  the  Laurentian  and  Silurian  .until  recently  regarded 
as  the  oldest  fossiliferous  rocks.  It  is  named  from  its  occurrence 
in  Cambria,  or  Wales. 

CARBONATE  OF  LIME — Limestones. 

CARBONIC  ACID  GAS — This  term  is  generally  applied  to  a  compound  of 
carbon  and  oxygen,  more  correctly  called  carbon  dioxide. 

CARBONIFEROUS  FORMATION  (Geol ) — A  series  of  rocks,  including  sand- 
stone, shales,  limestone,  and  conglomerates  with  beds  of  coal, 
which  make  up  the  strata  of  the  carboniferous  age. 

CARTILAGINOUS  or  CARTILAGINEOUS — Firm  and  tough,  like  cartilage. 

CELL  (Biol.) — One  of  the  minute  elementary  structures  of  which  the 
greater  part  of  the  various  tissues  and  organs  of  plants  is  composed. 

CEPAGE  (French) — Has  no  equivalent  in  English.  Any  vine  when 
under  cultivation. 

CHALAZE  or  CHALAZA  (Bot.) — The  place  on  a  seed  where  the  outer 
coats  cohere  with  each  other  and  the  nucleus. 

CHALAZIC  DEPRESSION  (Bot.) — Natural  depression  in  a  seed  formed  by 
the  chalaze. 

CHLOROSIS  (Bot.) — A  disease  in  plants  causing  the  leaves  to  lose  their 
normal  green  colour  and  turn  yellow. 

CONCAVE — Said  of  the  interior  of  a  curved  surface. 

CONCRETION  (Geol.) —  Rounded  mass  or  nodule  produced  by  the  aggre- 
gation of  the  material  round  a  centre,  as  the  calcareous  concre- 
tions common  in  beds  of  clay. 

CONGLOMERATE  (Geol.) — A  bed  of  fragments  of  rock,  or  pebbles, 
cemented  together  by  other  material. 

CON ic ALLY — -Having  the  general  shape  of  a  geometrical  cone,  round 
and  tapering  to  a  point,  or  gradually  decreasing  in  circumference. 

CONVEX — Said  of  the  outside  of  a  curved  surface  in  opposition  to 
concave. 

CORALLIAN  (Geol.) — A  deposit  of  coralliferous  limestone  forming  a 
portion  of  the  middle  division  of  the  oolite. 

CORDIFORM  or  CORDATE — Having  the  general  shape  of  a  heart,  as  a 
cordiform  leaf. 

COROLLA — The  second  envelope  of  a  flower,  usually  composed  of 
coloured  leaf-like  organs  (petals)  and  may  be  united  by  their  edges 
in  the  top  part,  as  in  vine  flowers.  • 

CORONA  OF  THE  STIGMA — Crown-like  appendage  at  the  top  of  the 
stigma. 

CRETACEOUS  FORMATION  (Geol.) — The  series  of  strata  of  various  kinds 
containing  beds  of  chalk,  green  sand;  also  called  chalk  formation. 

CRYPTOGAM  (Bot.)  —  Plants  belonging  to  the  series  or  division  of 
flowerless  plants  propagated  by  spores,  and  generally  living  as 
parasites  on  other  plants.  A  fungus  is  a  cryptogam. 

CRYPTOGAMIC  DISEASE — An  alteration  in  the  state  or  the  function  of  a 
plant,  caused  by  a  cryptogam  such  as  mildew,  black  rot,  etc. 

DEFOLIATION — The  falling  or  shedding  of  the  leaves. 

DESICCATION — The  state  of  being  dried  up  or  deprived  of  moisture. 

DEVONIAN  FORMATION  (Geol.) — A  series  of  Palaeozoic  rocks,  including 
the  old  red  sandstone. 

DIAPHRAGM  (Bot.) — Partition  of  wood  separating  the  pith  of  two 
internodes  in  a  vine  cane. 

DILUVIUM — See  Alpine  Diluvium. 

DISCOID — Having  a  circular  structure  like  the  berries  of  certain  vines 


274  AMERICAN    VINES. 

ELONGATED  or  ELONGATE — Drawn  out  in  length,  as  an  elongated  leaf. 

EMARGINATE  (Bot.) — When  speaking  of  a  leaf,  means  that,  in  entire 

leaves,  the  limb  becomes  narrow  suddenly  below  the  two  teeth 

forming  the  two  lateral  lobes.  j 

ENTIRE  (Bot.) — When  speaking  of  a  leaf,  means  one  consisting  of  a 

single  piece,  having  a  continuous  edge  without  any  lobes.  ».  i 

EOCENE  (Geol.) — The  earliest  of  the  three  divisions  of  the  Tertiary 

epoch  of  geologists.     Rocks  of  this  age  contain  shells. 
EXCISION — The  act  of  cutting  out  or  cutting  off. 

EXCORIATED — When  speaking  of  bark  means  that  detaching  in  strips. 
EXFOLIATING — When   speaking   of  bark,   that    separating    from  the 

trunk  and  coming  off  in  long  pieces. 
FECUND — Fruitful;  prolific. 

FERTILITY — The  state  of  being  fruitful  or  producing  offspring. 
FIBRO-VASCULAR  BUNDLES — Vegetable  tissue  composed  partly  of  sap 

tubes. 
FILAMENT  (Bot.) — The  thread-like  part  of  the  stamen  supporting  the 

anther. 

FILIFORM — Having  the  shape  of  a  thread  or  filament. 
FLORESCENCE  (Bot.) — The  "bursting  into  flower  or  blossoming. 
FLUTED  TRUNK. — Trunk  with  natural  grooves  situated  lengthwise. 
FOSSILIFEROUS  (Geol ) — Containing  fossils. 
FRUCTIFEROUS  (Bot.) — Bearing  or  producing  fruit. 
FRUCTIVITY  (Bot.) — The  quality  of  bearing  fruit. 
FUNGI,  sing.  Fungus  (Bot.) — A  class  of   cellular  and  flowerless  plants 

belonging  to  the  cryptogams. 
FUSION  OF  CHARACTERS — When  speaking  of  a  hybrid,  means  that  the 

characters  of  both  parents  are  united  in  the  offspring. 
GALL,  of  phylloxera — An  excrescence  produced  on  the  leaves  of  Ameri- 
can vines  by  one  of  the  wingless  forms  of  phylloxera. 
GARIGUES  SOILS — Red,  siliceous,  dry  loam,  covering  the  rock  formation 

of  certain  hills  in  the  south  of  France. 
GLABROUS — Smooth,  having  a  surface  without  hairs. 
GLAND — An  organ  which  secretes  some  peculiar  product  from  the  sap  of 

plants. 
GLAUCOUS — Of  a  sea-green  colour;    of  a  dull  green  passing  into  greyish 

blue. 

GLOBULAR — Having  the  form  of  a  ball  or  sphere. 
GOFFERED  or  GAUFFERED — Crimped  like  the  leaves  of  some  vines. 
GRANITE — A  rock  consisting  essentially  of  crystals  of  felspar  and  mica 

in  mass  of  quartz. 
GROIES  (French) — Applies  to  certain  calcareous  soils  of  the  Charente 

district. 
HERBACEOUS — Having  the  nature,  texture,  or  characteristics  of  a  herb; 

a  shoot  in  a  green  state. 

HERMAPHRODITE — Possessing  the  organs  of  both  sexes. 
HONEYCOMB  STRUCTURE — When  speaking  of    vine  leaves,  a  symetri- 

cally  uneven,  wrinkly,  or  goffered  surface.     See  Goffered. 
HUMID — Containing  sensible  moisture ;  damp;  moist. 
HUMIDITY — Moisture;  dampness;  a    moderate      degree      of     wetness 

perceptible  to  the  eye  or  touch. 
HUMIFEROUS — Containing  humus. 

HUMUS — That   portion  of  the  soil  formed  by  the  decomposition  of 
animal  or  vegetable  matter.     It  is  a  valuable  constituent  of  soil. 
HYBRID — The  offspring  of  the  union  of  two  different  species 


GLOSSARY.  275 

HYBRIDIZATION — The  act  of  hybridizing. 

HYBRIDIZE — To  produce  a  crossing  between  two  species. 

INDENTATION — A  notch  or  recess  in  the  margin  of  a  leaf. 

INDENTED — Notched  along  the  margin;  cut  on  the  edge  into  points, 
like  teeth. 

INFLORESCENCE — The  mode  of  arrangement  of  the  flowers  of  plants. 

INTERNODE — The  space  between  two  nodes  or  points  of  the  stem  from 
which  the  leaves  properly  arise. 

INTERSTICES — Spaces  between  closely  set  soils  or  rocks. 

INTRINSIC — Real,  inherent,  not  merely  apparent  or  accidental. 

INULIN — A  substance  found  dissolved  in  the  sap  of  the  roots  of  many 
composite  and  other  plants.  It  is  intermediate  in  nature  between 
starch  and  sugar. 

JURASSIC  (Geol.) — Of  the  age  of  the  middle  Mesozoic,  named  from 
certain  rocks  in  the  Jura  mountains. 

JUXTAPOSITION — Being  placed  side  by  side  with  opposite  parts  corre- 
sponding. 

KNIT— United ,  joined,  so  as  to  grow  together.  Used  as  a  noun,  means 
the  grafts  joined  together;  the  union. 

LACUSTRINE  DEPOSITS  (Geol.) — The  deposits  which  have  been  ac- 
cumulated in  fresh  water  areas. 

LAMINATED  STRATA  (Geol.) — Divided  into  thin  layers. 

LANCEOLATE  LEAF — Rather  narrow,  tapering  to  a  po;nt  at  the  apex. 

LANCINATED — Torn;  lacerated. 

LENTICLES  (Bot.) — Small,  oval,  or  rounded  spots  upon  the  stem  or 
branches  of  a  plant  Small  lens-shaped  glands  on  the  under  face 
of  some  leaves. 

LESION — Change  in  the  texture  of  a  vegetable  organ  resulting  from  an 
injury 

LIBER — The  inner  bark  of  plants,  lying  next  to  the  wood. 

LIGNEOUS  (Bot.) — Of  the  nature  of,  or  resembling  wood. 

LIGNIFICATION  (Bot.) — Change  in  the  character  of  an  herbaceous  shoot 
by  which  it  becomes  harder  or  woody. 

LIGNIFIED  (Bot.) — Converted  into  wood  or  into  ligneous  substance. 

LIMB,  of  a  leaf  (Bot.)     The  flat  part  of  the  leaf  of  any  plant 

LITTORAL — Bordering  the  seashore. 

LOAM — A  soil  formed  of  a  mixture  of  clay  and  sand  with  organic  mat- 
ter, to  which  its  fertility  is  chiefly  due. 

LOBATED  ORLOBATE  (Bot.) — Having  lobes. 

LOBE — A  rounded  projection  or  division  of  a  leaf. 

MARGIN,  of  a  leaf — The  outer  edge  or  border. 

MARL — A  mixed  soil  consisting  of  carbonate  of  lime,  clay,  and  sand  in 
very  variable  proportions,  and  accordingly  designated  as  calcar- 
eous, clayey,  or  sandy. 

MEDULLARY  RAYS  (Bot.) — The  rays  of  cellular  tissues  seen  in  a  trans- 
verse section  of  exogenous  wood  which  run  from  the  pith  to  the 
bark. 

METIS — The  offspring  of  the  union  of  two  varieties  of  the  same  species. 

METIZATION — The  act  of  producing  a  crossing  between  two  varieties  of 
the  same  species. 

MIOCENE  (Geol.) — Middle  division  of  the  Tertiary. 

MORPHOLOGY — The  law  of  form  or  structure,  independent  of  function. 

MUCRO  (Bot.) — A  minute,  abrupt  point  of  a  leaf. 

MYCELIUM  (Bot.) — The  white  threads  or  filamentous  growth  from 
which  a  mushroom  or  fungus  is  developed;  the  so-called  mush- 
room spawn. 


276 


AMERICAN    VINES. 


NITROGEN — A  colourless  gas  composing  four-fifths  of  the  atmosphere 
by  volume.  It  is  incapable  of  supporting  life,  but  forms  many  im- 
portant compounds,  as  ammonia,  nitric  acid,  etc.,  and  is  consti- 
tuent of  all  organized  living  tissues,  animal  or  vegetable. 

NODE  (Bot.) — The  joint  of  a  stem,  or  the  part  where  the  leaf  is  inserted. 

NODOSITIES — Small  swellings  produced  on  vine  roots  by  phylloxera. 

NODULE — A  round  mass  of  irregular  shape. 

NORMAL — According  to  an  established  rule.  (Geom.)  Perpendicular 
to  a  surface  or  forming  a  right  angle  with  it. 

NUCLEUS  (Bot.) — A  whole  seed,  as  contained  within  the  seed  coats. 

NUTRITION — A  process  or  series  of  processes  by  which  the  living  organ- 
ism is  maintained  in  its  normal  conditions  of  life  and  growth. 

NUTRITIVE  MATTERS — Matters  having  the  quality  of  nourishing. 

OBTUSE — Not  pointed  or  acute;  blunt. 

OCHEROUS  SOILS — Containing  an  impure  earthy  ore  of  iron,  or  a  ferru- 
ginous clay.  Such  soils  are  usuallv  red  or  yellow. 

OOLITIC — A  great  series  of  secondary  rocks,  so-called  from  the  texture 
of  some  of  its  members,  which  appear  to  be  made  up  of  small  egg- 
like  calcareous  bodies. 

OPERCULUM — Any  lid-shaped  structure  in  a  leaf  or  flower. 

ORBICULAR — Having  a  spherical  form. 

OVATE  (Bot.) — Having  the  shape  of  an  egg,  that  is  to  say  an. oval 
border  at  the  base. 

OVOID  (Bot ) — -Resembling  an  egg  in  shape. 

OVULE,  of  plants — The  seed  in  the  earliest  condition. 

OXFORDIAN  (Geol.) — Applied  to  rocks  of  a  certain  age  in  the  Jurassic 
series. 

PARABOLA — A  kind  of  geometrical  curve;  one  of  the  conic  sections 
formed  by  the  intersection  of  the  surface  of  a  cone  with  a  plane 
parallel  to  one  of  its  sides. 

PARASITE  (Bot.) — A  plant  living  upon  or  in  another  plant. 

PARENCHYMA  (Bot.) — The  soft  cellular  substance  of  the  tissues  of 
plants,  like  the  pulp  of  leaves. 

PEDICLE  or  PEDICEL  (Bot ) — A  stalk  which  supports  one  flower  or  fruit. 
One  of  the  many  divisions  of  a  peduncle. 

PEDUNCLE  (Bot ) — The  stem  or  stalk  which  supports  a  cluster  of  flow- 
ers or  fruits. 

PENTAGONAL  LEAF — Having  five  sides. 

PETALS  (Bot.) — The  leaves  of  the  corolla,  a  second  circle  of  organs  in  a 
flower. 

PETIOLAR  SINUS — Depression  between ^two  adjoining  lobes  into  which 
the  petiole  is  inserted. 

PETIOLE — A  leaf  stalk;  the  stalk  connecting  the  stem  with  the  blade 
or  limb. 

PHYSIOLOGICAL — -Relating  to  the  'science  of  the  functions  of  living 
organisms. 

PHYSIOLOGY — Study  dealing  with  vegetable  or  animal  life. 

PINCHING  (Hort.) — Operation  consisting  in  cutting  about  one  inch  off 
the  extremity  of  young  shoots  a  little  before  or  directly  after 
florescence 

PISTIL  (Bot.) — The  female  organs  of  a  flower,  which  occupy  a  position 
in  the  centre  of  other  floral  organs.  The  pistil  is  generally 
divisible  into  the  ovary,  the  style,  and  the  stigma. 

PITH  (Bot.) — The  soft,  spongy  substance  in  the  centre  of  the  stem  of 
many  plants. 


GLOSSARY.  277 

PLANE  or  PLAIN — A  flat,  level,  smooth,  even  surface. 

PLASTICITY — Retaining  any  impressed  form  or  shape. 

POLLEN  (Bot.) — The  male  element  in  flowering  plants,  usually  a  fine 
dust  produced  by  the  anthers,  which  by  contact  with  the  stigma 
effects  the  fecundation  of  the  seeds.  This  impregnation  is  brought 
about  by  tubes  (pollen  tubes)  which  issue  from  the  pollen  grains 
adhering  to  the  stigma  and  penetrate  through  the  tissues  until 
they  reach  the  ovary. 

POLYGAMUS  PLANTS — Plants  in  which  some  flowers  are  unisexual  and 
others  hermaphrodite. 

POURRIDIE  (French) — Disease  on  the  roots  of  vines  caused  by  different 
fungi. 

PROCREATION — Generation  or  production  of  young. 

PRODUCTIVITY — The  quality  or  state  of  being  productive. 

PROTUBERANCE — A  swelling  or  prominence,  such  as  the  protuberance 
of  a  node. 

PUBESCENT — Covered  with  fine  short  hairs,  as  the  leaves  of  some  vines. 

QUATERNARY  TUFA  (Geol  ) — A  soft,  porous  stone  formed  by  deposition 
from  water,  usually  calcareous,  belonging  to  the  quaternary  age. 

RADICEL  (Bot.) — A  small  branch  of  a  root;  a  rootlet. 

RAPHE  or  RHAPHE  (Bot.) — The  continuation  of  the  seed  stalk  along 
the  side  of  an  anatropous  seed,  forming  a  ridge  or  stem. 

REVERSION — To  return  towards  some  ancestral  type  or  character; 
atavism. 

RIB  (Bot.) — The  chief  nerve  or  one  of  the  chief  nerves  of  a  leaf;  also 
any  longitudinal  ridge  on  a  stem,  as  in  V.  Berlandieri. 

ROUNDED  LEAF — Having  a  curved  outline  without  lobes. 

RUDIMENTARY — Very  imperfectly  developed;  in  an  early  stage  of 
development. 

RUGOSE,  leaf — Having  the  veinlets  sunken  and  the  spaces  between 
them  elevated. 

SCHIST — Any  crystalline  rock  having  a  foliated  structure. 

SCHISTOSE  SOILS — Are  usually  metamorphic  clays. 

SCION — A  piece  of  branch  cut  for  grafting  into  another. 

SEMI — Prefix  signifying  half,  as  in  semi-erect,  semi-climbing  habit,  etc. 

SEPALS — The  leaves  or  segments  of  the  calyx,  or  outermost  envelope 
of  an  ordinary  flower.  They  are  usually  green. 

SHOULDERED  GRAPES — Those  in  which  the  two  ramifications  of  the 
base  are  well  developed. 

SIEVE  TUBFS  (Bot.) — Also  called  cribriform  tubes.  Those  having 
here  and  there  places  perforated  with  many  holes. 

SILICA — Quartz,  silicon  dioxide. 

SILICEOUS  NODULES — See  Nodule. 

SILICEOUS  OR  SILICIOUS  SOILS — Those  containing  silica  or  quartz. 

SILURIAN  (Geol ) — A  term  applied  to  the  earliest  of  the  Palaeozoic 
strata. 

SINUS  (PI.  sini  or  sinuses) — A  depression  between  adjoining  lobes  in  a 
leaf. 

SPECIES — An  ideal  group  of  individuals  which  are  believed  to  have 
descended  from  common  ancestors,  which  agree  in  essential 
characters  and  are  capable  of  indefinitely  continued  fertile  repro- 
duction through  the  sexes.  A  species  as  thus  defined  differs  from 
a  variety  or  sub-species  only  in  the  greater  stability  of  its  charac- 
ters and  in  the  absence  of  individuals  intermediate  between  the 
related  groups. 


278  AMERICAN   VINES. 

STAMENS — The  male  organs  of  flowering  plants,  standing  in  a  circle 
within  the  petals.  They  usually  consist  of  a  filament  and  an 
anther,  being  the  essential  part  in  which  the  pollen  or  fecundat- 
ing dust  is  formed. 

STERILE — Incapable  of  reproduction;  not  able  to  germinate  or  bear 
fruit,  as  a  sterile  flower,  which  bears  only  stamens. 

STIGMA — The  apical  portion  of  the  pistil  in  flowering  plants. 

STOCK,  grafting — Part  which  bears  the  scion  in  plants. 

STRATA,  sing,  stratum  (Geol.) — Beds  of  earth  or  rock  of  one  kind 
formed  by  natural  causes,  and  consisting  usually  of  a  series  of 
layers. 

STRIATED — Marked  with  striae,  or  fine  grooves  or  lines;  showing  narrow 
structural  bands  of  lines. 

STYLE  (,Bot.) — The  middle  portion  of  the  perfect  pistil,  which  rises 
like  a  column  from  the  ovary  and  supports  the  stigma  at  its 
summit. 

SUBEROUS  TISSUE  (suberous  or  suberose) — Having  a  corky  texture. 

SUB-MEDIUM — Under  the  average. 

SUB-ORBICULAR — Having  an  elliptic  outline. 

SUB-RIBS — Secondary  ramifications  of  the  ribs  of  a  leaf. 

SUB-VEINS — Same  meaning  as  sub-ribs. 

SULPHATE  OF  COPPER — Compound  of  sulphuric  acid  and  copper,  com- 
monly called  bluestone. 

SULPHATE  OF  IRON — Compound  of  sulphuric  acid  and  iron,  commonly 
called  green  vitriol. 

TENDRIL  (Bot.) — A  slender  leafless  portion  of  a  plant,  by  which  it 
becomes  attached  to  a  supporting  body,  after  which  the  tendril 
usually  contracts  by  coiling  spirally.  The  tendrils  of  a  vine  are 
metamorphosed  grapes. 

TERNARY  HYBRID — Hybrid  resulting  from  the  crossing  of  three 
c<§pages. 

TERTIARY — The  latest  geological  epoch,  immediately  preceding  the 
establishment  of  the  present  order  of  things. 

TOMENTOSE  (Bot ) — Covered  with  matty  woolly  hairs. 

TOMENTUM  (Bot.) — The  closely  matted  hair  or  downy  nap  covering 
the  leaves  or  stems  of  some  plants. 

TOOTH — Angular  or  rounded  prominence  on  the  margin  or  edge  of  a 
leaf. 

TRILOBATE — Having  three  lobes. 

TUBEROSITIES — Knob-like  prominences  developing  on  vine  roots 
attacked  by  phylloxera. 

TUFA — See  quaternary  tufa. 

UNDULATING  LEAF — Rising  and  falling  like  waves. 

VARIATION — A  varied  form  of  a  variety. 

VARIETY — Differs  from  a  species  in  that  when  propagated  by  seed  it 
will  revert  to  another  form.  See  species. 


TABLE    OF   ILLUSTRATIONS.  279 


TABLE    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Pajje 

Fig.    1.     Young  shoot  of  V.  Rotundifolia 43 

Fig.    2.     Seed  of  V.  Rotundifolia 44 

Fig.    3.     Leaf  of  V.  Rotundifolia 44 

Fig.    4.     Seed  of  V.  Munsoniana 45 

Fig.    5.     Shoot  of  V.  Labrusca  with  continuous  tendrils 46 

Fig.    6.     Shoot  with  discontinuous  tendrils 46 

Fig.    7.     Leaf  of  V.  Labrusca 47 

Fig.    8.     Seed  of  V.  Labrusca 47 

Fig.    9.     Leaf  ofV.  Californica 51 

Fig.  10.     Seed  of  V.  Calitornica 52 

Fig.  11.     Leaf  of  V.  Coriacea 53 

Fig.  12.     Seed  of  V.  Coriacea 54 

Fig.  13.     Leaf  of  V.  Candicans 54 

Fig.  14.     Lancinate  leaf  of  V.  Candicans 55 

Fig.  15.     Seed  of  V.  Candicans 55 

Fig.  16.     Leaf  of  V.  Lincecumii 58 

Fig.  17.     Seed  of  V.  Lincecumii 58 

Fig.  18.     Seed  of  V.  Bicolor 59 

Fig.  19.     Seed  of  V.  yEstivalis 60 

Fig.  20.    Seed  of  V.  Berlandieri 61 

Fig.  21.     Leaf  of  Berlandieri  R£sseguier  No.  1 64 

Fig.  22.     Leaf  of  Berlandieri  Daignere 65 

Fig.  23.     Leaf  of  Berlandieri  Re"sseguier  No.  2 66 

Fig.  24.     Leaf  of  Berlandieri  Vialla  67 

Fig.  25.     Leaf  of  Berlandieri  Ecole 68 

Fig.  26.     Leaf  of  V.  Cordifolia 76 

Fig.  27.     Seed  of  V.  Cordifolia 77 

Fig.  28.     Leaf  of  V.  Cordifolia  Sempervirens 78 

Fig.  29.     Leaf  of  V.  Cinerea 81 

Fig.  30.     Seed  of  V.  Cinerea 81 

Fig.  31.    Seed  of  V.  Rupestris 82 

Fig.  32.     Leaf  of  V.  Rupestris  Mission 85 

Fig.  33.     Petiolar  Sinus  of  Rupestris  Mission 86 

Fig.  34.     Leaf  of  Rupestris  du  Lot 86 

Fig.  35.     Petiolar  Sinus  of  Rupestris  du  Lot 86 

Fig.  36.     Leaf  of  Rupestris  Ganzin 88 

Fig.  37.     Petiolar  Sinus  of  Rupestris  Ganzin 88 

Fig.  38.     Leaf  of  Rupestris  Martin 89 

Fig.  39.     Petiolar  Sinus  of  Rupestris  Martin 89 

Fig.  40.     Leaf  of  Rupestris  Metallica 90 

Fig.  41.     Petiolar  Sinus  of  Rupestris  Metallica 90 

Fig.  42.     Leaf  of  Rupestris  of  Fortworth 92 

Fig.  43.     Petiolar  Sinus  of  Rupestris  of  Fortworth 92 

Fig.  44.     Leaf  of  V.  Monticola  ( upper  face ) 97 

Fig.  45.     Leaf  of  V.  Monticola  (under  face) 97 

Fig.  46.     Seed  of  V.  Monticola 98 

Fig.  47.     Leaf  of  Monticola  Salomon 100 

Fig.  48.     Leaf  of  V.  Monticola  Munson  No.  1 101 


280  AMERICAN  VINES 

Page 

Fig.  49.  Leaf  of  V.  Monticola  Munson  No.  3 102 

Fig.  50.  Leaf  of  V.  Arizonica 103 

Fig.  51.  Seed  of  V.  Arizonica 103 

Fig.  52.  Leaf  of  Riparia  Gloire 104 

Fig.  53.  Leaf  of  Riparia  Grand  Glabre 105 

Fig.  54.  Seed  of  V.  Riparia 105 

Fig.  55.  Seed  of  V.  Rubra 113 

Fig.  56.  Seed  of  V.  Vinifera 115 

Fig.  57.  Normal  vine  flower 120 

Fig.  58.  Different  stages  in  the  opening  of  a  Chasselas  flower 

(after  Millardet) 120 

Fig.  59.  Male  flowers 121 

Fig.  60.  Flowers  with  long  stamens 122 

Fig.  61.  Flowers  with  short  stamens 122 

Fig.  62.  Upper  face  of  vine  leaf,  showing  the  opening  of  phylloxera 

galls 127 

Fig.  63.  Side  view  showing  phylloxera  galls 127 

Fig.  64.  Nodosities  and  tuberosities  (a )  on  vine  roots 128 

Fig.  65.  Penetrating  tuberosities  129 

Fig.  66.  Large  tuberosities  ? 129 

Fig.  67.  Non  penetrating  tuberosities 129 

Fig.  68.  Non  penetrating  tuberosities  on  roots  of  American  vines  129 

Fig.  69.  Leaf  of  York  Madeira 133 

Fig.  70.  Leaf  of  Noah 137 

Fig.  71.  Leaf  of  Clinton 138 

Fig.  72.  Leaf  of  Vialla 140 

Fig.  73.  Leaf  of  Taylor  Narbonne 142 

Fig.  74.  Leaf  of  Barnes 144 

Fig.  75.  Leaf  of  Champin 146 

Fig.  76.  Leaf  of  Belton  148 

Fig.  77.  Leaf  of  Riparia  X  Candicans 150 

Fig.  78.  LeafofScfloms 153 

Fig.  79.  Leaf  of  Novo-Mexicana  ( Mobeetie ) 155 

Fig.  80.  Leaf  of  Doaniana 156 

Fig.  81.  Leaf  of  Berlandieri  X  Riparia  No.  33  Ecole 164 

Fig.  82.  Leaf  of  Berlandieri  X  Riparia  No.  34  Ecole 165 

Fig.  83.  Leaf  of  Colorado 168 

Fig.  84.  Leaf  of  Riparia  X  Rupestris  No.  101-14  (Millardet  and 

de  Grasset) 169 

Fig.  85.  Leaf  of  Riparia  X  Rupestris  No.  3306  (Couderc) 170 

Fig.  86.  Leaf  of  Riparia  X  Rupestris  No.  3309  (Couderc) 171 

Fig.  87.  Leaf  of  Jacquez 179 

Fig.  88.  Leaf  of  Herbemont 181 

Fig.  89.  Leaf  of  Cabernet  X  Berlandieri  No.  333  Ecole 185 

Fig.  90.  Leaf  of  Chasselas  X  Berlandieri  No.  41  (Millardet  and  de 

Grasset) 186 

Fig.  91.  Leaf  of  Aramon  X  Rupestris  Ganzin  No.  1 188 

Fig.  92.  Leaf  of  Othello 194 

Fig.  93.  Callus  or  knitting  tissue  developed  on  a  scion 210 

Fig.  94.  Grafting  knife 225 

Fig.  95.  Grafting  bill 225 

Fig.  96.  Grafting  bill  with  curved  blade 225 

Fig.  97.  Stock  and  scion  prepared  for  the  whip-tongue  graft  226 

Fig.  98.  Preparation  of  stock  for  the  whip-tongue  graft 226 


TABLE   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS.  281 

Page 

Fig.  99.  Section  of  stock  and  scion 227 

Fig.  100.  Joint  of  whip-tongue  graft 227 

Fig.  101.  Champin  graft 228 

Fig,  102.  Hand  saw 229 

Fig.  103.  Wedge-shape  scion  for  ordinary  cleft-graft 229 

Fig.  104.  Ordinary  cleft-graft  on  old  stock 229 

Fig.  105.  Wedge-shaped  scion  for  English  cleft-graft 230 

Fig.  106.  Double  cleft-graft  on  old  stock 230 

Fig.  107.  English  cleft-graft.  Stock  and  scion  joined 231 

Fig.  108.  Showing  the  disposition  of  generative  layers  on  stock 

and  scion 231 

Fig.  109  and  110.  Shouldered  cleft-graft  prepared  with  a  grafting 

knife 231 

Fig.  Ill  and  112.  Shouldered  cleft-graft  prepared  with  a  grafting 

machine 233 

Fig.  113.  Shouldered  cleft-graft  joined 233 

Fig.  114.  Aglet  graft,  stock,  scion  and  graft  united 233 

Fig.  115.  Saddle  grafts 234 

Fig.  116.  Raffia  ligature 235 

Fig.  117.  Whip-tongue  graft  with  ligature 236 

Fig.  118  and  119.  Shouldered  cleft-graft 236 

Fig.  120  and  121.  Ordinary  cleft-graft 236 

Fig.  122.  Ligature  of  an  Aglet  graft 237 

Fig.  123.  Cork  graft 238 

Fig.  124.  Mattock  used  for  severing  the  roots 242 

Fig.  125.  Liberated  graft  (a]  strong  scion  roots  (£)  weak  roots  of 

the  stock 243 

Fig.  126  and  127.  Cadillac  graft  (a)  stock  (6)  scion 245 

Fig.  128  and  129.  Cadillac  graft  (a  j  stock  (d)  scion 245 

Fig.  130.  Cazeaux-Cazalet  graft 246 

Fig.  131.  Defective  cleft 247 

Fig.  132.  Cadillac  side  cleft-graft 247 

Fig.  133.  Gaillard  graft 248 

Fig.  134.  Showing  the  way  of  removing  the  eyes  of  the  stock 250 

Fig.  135.  Grafted  cuttings  planted  with  a  dibble 253 

Fig.  136.  Nursery  beds 253 

Fig.  137.  Grafted  cuttings  placed  in  nursery  rows 254 

Fig.  138.  Arrangement  of  the  soil 254 

Fig.  139.  Showing  the  arrangement  of  the  sand  around  the  top  eye  254 
Fig.  140.  Grafted  cutting  (a)  slender  roots  of  the  stock  (d)  strong 

roots  of  the  scion 255 

Fig.  141.  Pourridie" 257 

Fig.  142.  Botrytis  cinerea 258 

Fig.  143.  Herbaceous  graft  knitted  (after  H.  Goethe) 259 

Fig.  144.  Stock  prepared  for  the  herbaceous  graft  ( after  H .  Goethe )  259 

Fig.  145.  Side  graft  (after  Goethe) 260 

Fig.  146.  Side  graft  joined  (a]  scion,  (£)  ligature,  (c)  stock  (after 

H.  Goethe) 260 

Fig.  147.  Section  of  the  union  of  a  herbaceous  graft  (after  H. 

Goethe) 260 

Fig.  148.  Mode  of  preparing  the  shield 261 

Fig.  149.  Salgues  graft 262 

Fig.  150.  Budding  with  growing  eye 262 


282  AMERICAN  VINES. 


ALPHABETICAL    INDEX. 


A. 

Page 

Adaptation 11 

Advance 193 

yEstivalis  with  large  berries 57 

./Estivalis  with  large  berries  No.  13  (Jaeger) 57 

yEstivalis  X  Bicolor 158 

yEstivalis  X  Cinerea 159 

^Estivalis  X  Cordifolia 158 

yEstivalis  X  Coriacea 167 

^Estivalis  X  Riparia 160 

^Estivalis  X  Rupestris 159 

Affinity „  . 214 

Agawam .x 174 

Alexander 48 

Alicante  Bouschet  X  Rupestris  No.  136  ( Ecole) 190 

Alicante  Bouschet  X  Rupestris  ( M.  and  G. ) 190 

Alicante  Ganzin 191 

Alicante  X   Rupestris  Terras  No.  20 190 

Alma 193 

Alvey 177 

Amber-Queen 136 

Aramon  X  Riparia  ( M.  and  G. ) 192 

Aramon  X  Rupestris  Ganzin  No.  1 189 

Aramon  X  Rupestris  Ganzin  No.  2 189 

Ariadne 136 

Arrot 48 

Asiatic  vines 114 

August  Giant 193 

Autuchon 193 

Azemar  Hybrid : 160 

B. 

Bacchus 136 

Balsiger's 134 

Baxter 60 

Barnes 145 

Beauty 176 

Belton 148 

Belvidere 48 

Bench  grafting 248 

Berlandieri  X  Candicans,  Bouisset    145 

Berlandieri  X  Candicans,  No.  1 144 

Berlandieri  X  Candicans,  No.  2 144 

Berlandieri  X  Candicans,  No.  3 144 

Berlandieri  X  Cinerea 162 

Berlandieri  X  Cordifolia 162 


ALPHABETICAL    INDEX.  283 


Berlandieri  Cristal 

Berlandieri  Daignere , 65 

Berlandieri  Angeac 67 

Berlandieri  de  Grasset 63 

Berlandieri  Ecole 68 

Berlandieri  Glabrous 62 

Berlandieri  Lafont,  No.  9 67 

Berlandieri  X  Lincecumii 162 

Berlandieri  Mazade 64 

Berlandieri  Millardet 65 

Berlandieri  X  Monticola 161 

Berlandieri,  No.  1  ( E.  Ress6guier ) 65 

Berlandieri,  No.  2  ( E.  Resse"guier )  66 

Berlandieri  Planchon 63 

Berlandieri  X  Riparia 162 

Berlandieri  X  Riparia  No.  33  ( Ecole ) 163 

Berlandieri  X  Riparia  No.  34  (Ecole) 164 

Berlandieri  X  Rupestris 160 

Berlandieri  Tomentose 62 

Berlandieri  Viala 68 

Bicolor  X  Riparia 158 

Black  Defiance 174 

Black  Eagle 174 

Black  Hawk 48 

Black  Jack 158 

Black  July 178 

Black  Pearl 136 

Blue  Dyer 136 

Blue  Favourite 178 

Blue  French  Grape 178 

Botrytis  Cinerea 258 

Bourquiniana 178 

Bourrisquon  X  Rupestris  Martin  ( Couderc) 189 

Brandt 193 

Brown  French  Grape 178 

Budding 261 

C. 

Cabernet  X  Berlandieri  No.  333  (Ecole) 186 

Cabernet  X  Rupestris  ( M.  and  G. ) 190 

Calcareous  soils 18 

Californica  X  Arizonica 143 

Callusing 250 

Campbell 174 

Canada 193 

Canada  X  Riparia  (Couderc) 196 

Candicans  X  ^Estivalis 157 

Candicans  X  Berlandieri 143 

Candicans  X  Cinerea 157 

Candicans  X  Cordifolia 157 

Candicans  X  Riparia 149 

Candicans  X  Riparia  X   Rupestris 149 

Candicans  X  Monticola  . ,  147 


284  AMERICAN  VINES. 

Candicans  X  Monticola  No.  32  (Ecole) 147 

Candicans  X  Rupestris 145 

Carbonate  of  Lime  and  Chlorosis 31 

Carbonate  of  Magnesia 33 

Carpar 178 

Catawba 136 

Centennial 175 

C£pages 41 

Champin 145 

Champin  ( glabrous )  146 

Champin  f  tomentose )  146 

Chasselas  X  Berlandieri  ( M.  and  G. ) 187 

Chasselas  X  Rupestris  Martin  (Couderc)  189 

Chlorosis 18 

Chlorosis,  characteristic  symptoms  of 18 

Chlorosis,  cause  of 22 

Choice  of  varieties 197 

Cinerea  X  Coriacea 167 

Cinerea  ( glabrous )   80 

Cinerea  X  Novo  Mexicana . .  157 

Cinerea  X  Riparia x. 167 

Cinerea  X  Rupestris 169 

Cinerea  (tomentose) 80 

Clairette  ( golden )  Ganzin 191 

Clay  (Role  of) 15 

Climate  and  Chlorosis 29 

Clinton 138 

Cognac  (Couderc) 176 

Colombeau • 116 

Colombeau  X  Riparia  ( Couderc ) 192 

Colombeau  X  Rupestris  Martin  (Couderc) 189 

Colorado * 168 

Combinations 128 

Compactness 15 

Concord 48 

Concord  X  Cynthiana  134 

Coniothyrium  diplodiella 258 

Conqueror 136 

Cordifolia  X  Cinerea 165 

Cordifolia  X  Coriacea 167 

Cordifolia  X  Riparia 166 

Cordifolia  X  Rupestris 166 

Cordifolia  X  Rupestris  de  Grasset  No.  1 166 

Cordifolia  X  Rupestris  Jaeger  No.  1 166 

Cordifolia  X  Rupestris  Jaeger  No.  4 166 

Cordifolia  X  Rupestris  Jaeger  No.  5 166 

Cordifolia  Sempervirens  (Munson) 78 

Cornucopia 193 

Cottage 48 

Cottis    19 

Crossings 128 

Croton 176 

Culture 197 

Cunningham 178 

Cynthiana 134 


ALPHABETICAL    INDEX.  28$ 

D. 


Deep  ploughing 

Delaware,  grey 175 

Delaware,  white 175 

Diana 136 

Diseases  (nurseries) 257 

Doaniana 154 

Doaniana,  early 156 

Doaniana,  late 1 57 

Dolomite 33 

Duchess ' 176 

Dunn 177 

E. 

Early  Victor 48 

Elvira 138 

Elvira  No.  100  (Jaeger) 138 

Empire  State 136 

Etraire  de  1'Adhui 116 

Etta 136 

Eum£lan 175 

Eureka 48 

Exquisite 177 

F. 

Faith...  136 

Far  West 58 

Fecundation 120 

Ferrand's  Michigan 136  and  14] 

Fertility    17 

Fibrillaria 258 

Flowers    43 

Franklin 141 

Frank's  Hybrid 190 

G. 

Camay  Couderc 189 

Camay  X  Rupestris  Ganzin  (Couderc)  189 

Gartner 174 

Gold  Coin 134 

Golden  Clairette  Ganzin 191 

Grafting 209 

Grafting  and  Chlorosis 38 

Grafting,  most  favorable  time  for 239 

Grafting,  Bench 248 

Grafting,  Rootlings 257 

Grafting,  Herbaceous 259 

Grafting  on  growing  stocks 239 

Grafting,  Systems  of 225 

Craft,  Anatomy  of  the 209 

Graft,  Physiology  of  the 209 


286  AMERICAN     VINES. 

Page 

Graft,  shouldered 231 

Graft,  aglet 233 

Graft,  whip-tongue 226 

Graft,  cork 238 

Graft,  champin 228 

Grafts,  autumn 244 

Graft,  Cadillac 245 

Graft,  double  cleft 230 

Graft,  ordinary  cleft 228 

Graft,  hollowed  cleft 233 

Graft,  Englisli  cleft 230 

Graft,  dovetail 234 

Graft,  Gaillard 248 

Graft,  Saddle 234 

Graft,  Salgues 262 

Grein's  Golden 136 

Grey  Delaware 175 

Gros  Colman  X  Rupestris  ( M.  and  G. ) 190 

Gwyn  grape 148 

Gypsum .x 33 

H. 

Hartford  Prolific 48 

Harvard  177 

Harwood  177 

Heat  and  Chlorosis 28 

Herbemont 177 

Herbemont  of  Aurelle 178 

Herbemont  Touzan 178 

Herbemont,  White 178 

Herbert 174 

Hermann 134 

Highland 174 

Humidity 16 

Humidity  and  Chlorosis 22 

Huntingdon 141 

Hutchison 154 

Hybridization 117 

Hybridization  ( Historical)  117 

Hybridization  (Technique) 122 

Hybrids 117 

Hybrids  (Americo-American) 132 

Hybrid,  Franc's 190 

Hybrids  ( Franco-American )  172 

Hybrids,  Seibel's 191 

Hybrids  of  American  vines 132 

Hybrids  of  V.  Vinifera 172 

.1. 

Influence  of  soil  7 

lona 136 

Iron  Salts 24 

Ironclad...  136 


ALPHABETICAL    INDEX.  287 

Iron  and  Chlorosis   23 

Irwing 174 

Isabella 48 

Israella 48 

Ives  seedlings 48 


Jacquez « 177 

Jacquez  with  large  berries 177 

Jacquez  of  Aurelle 177 

Jefferson 136 

K. 

Knitting  tissue 210 

L. 

Labrusca  X  ^Estivalis 132 

Labrusca  X  ^Estivalis  X  Cinerea 134 

Labrusca  X  ^Estivalis  X  Rupestris  135 

Labrusca  X  ./Estivalis  X   Rupestris  X  Riparia 135 

Labrusca  X  Cordifolia 135 

Labrusca  X  Riparia 135 

Labrusca  X  Riparia  X  Rupestris 141 

Lady 48 

Layering 106 

Lifting  grafted  cuttings 256 

Ligatures 237 

Lincecumii  X  Estivalis 157 

Lincecumii  X  Candicans 157 

Lincecumii  X  Cinerea 157 

Lincecumii  X  Cordifolia 157 

Lincecumii  No.  13  (Jaeger) 58 

Lincecumii  No.  43  (Jaeger) 58 

Lincecumii  X  Rupestris 158 

Lindley 174 

Love-lady 145 

Light  and  Chlorosis 28 

Luty ,    136 

M. 

Manuring 203 

Marion 136 

Martha 48 

Mason  seedling 48 

Maxatawney 48 

McKee 178 

Mildew  38 

Mildew  and  Chlorosis 38 

Mish 43 

Missouri  Riesling 136 


288  AMERICAN  VINES. 

Mobeetie 154 

Montefiore 136 

Monticola 96 

Monticola  X  Foexeana 101 

Monticola  Munson,  No.  1  100 

Monticola  Munson,  No.  2  and  No.  3 100 

Monticola  X  Riparia 167 

Monticola  X  Salomon 99 

Monticola  X  Texana 101 

Monticola  X  Rupestris 167 

Moore's  Early 48 

Mottled 136 

Mourvedre  X  Rupestris.  (Couderc) 189 

Mourvedre  X  Rupestris  Ganzin  (Couderc)    189 

Mustang 55 

N. 

Naomi 193 

Neosho .x 57 

Niagara 48 

Ninon 158 

Noah 187 

North  Carolina 43 

Northern  Muscadine 48 

Norton's  Virginia 134 

Novo-Mexicana 152 

Novo-Mexicana  C 152 

Novo-Mexicana  D 152 

Novo-Mexicana  Microsperma 152 

Novo-Mexicana,  No.  43 152 

Novo-Mexicana,  No.  56 J 52 

No.  33.     ( Ecole) 163 

No.  33.     ( M.  and  G. ) 190 

No.  34.     (Ecole) 164 

No.  41.     ( M.  and  G. ) 187 

No.  43.     (Jaeger) 58 

No.  62.     (Jaeger) 84 

No.  70.     (Jaeger) 58 

No.  101-14 172 

No.  108 172 

No.  136.     (Ecole) 190 

No.  139.     (M.andG.) 190 

No.  141.     ( M.  and  G. )  192 

No.  142.     (Ecole) 192 

No.  143.     (M.andG.) 192 

No.  160.     ( M.  and  G. ) 190 

No.  333.     (Ecole)  . .  , 186 

No.  503.     (Couderc) 189 

No.  504.     (Couderc)  189 

No.  601.     (Couderc)  189 

No.  603.     (Couderc) 189 

No.  604.     (Couderc) 189 

No.  901.     (Couderc) 189 


ALPHABETICAL    INDEX.  289 

No.  904.  (Couderc)  176 

No.  1001.  (Couderc)  189 

No.  1002.  (Couderc)  189 

No.  1103.  (Couderc)  189 

No.  1106.  (Couderc)  176 

No.  1202.  (Couderc)  189 

No.  1203.  (Couderc)  189 

No.  1304.  (Couderc)  176 

No.  1305.  (Couderc)  189 

No.  1401.  (Couderc) 196 

No.  1614.  (Couderc)  157 

No.  1615.  (Couderc)  157 

No.  2001.  (Couderc) 189 

No.  2102.  (Couderc)  176 

No.  2103.  (Couderc)  189 

No.  2401.  (Couderc) 196 

No.  2412.  (Couderc)  196 

No.  2501.  (Couderc)  192 

No.  2502.  (Couderc)  192 

No.  3001.  ( Couderc)  192 

No.  3002.  (Couderc)  192 

No.  3103.  (Couderc)  189 

No.  3306.  (Couderc)  172 

No.  3309.  (Couderc)  172 

Nurseries 252 

O. 

Oporto 141 

Oporto  X  Colombeau  ( Couderc ) 196 

Othello 193 

P. 

Pauline 134 

Perkins 48 

Petit  Bouschet  X  Riparia  (Couderc) 192 

Petit  Bouschet  X  Riparia  ( Ecole )  192 

Phylloxera  and  Chlorosis 38 

Pineau  X  Rupestris  Martin  ( Couderc ) 189 

Planting  out 203 

Plant  Pouzin  139 

Ploughing 205 

Ploughing  and  Chlorosis 40 

Pocklington 48 

Post  Oak 57 

Pourridi£ 258 

Pouzin .- .  139 

Prentiss 48 

Preservation  of  scions 251 

Preservation  of  stocks 251 

Propagation  ot  Berlandieri 75 

Psalmodi 116 

Psathyrella  ampelina 258 

ullvat   .  58 


2QO  AMERICAN  VINES. 

R. 

Racine a|s 

Rate  of  specific  attack  of  limestones 34 

Rebecca 48 

Rentz 48 

Resistance  to  phylloxera,  table  of 197 

Riparia  with  violet  wood 108 

Riparia  Baron  Perrier . .  108 

Riparia  X  Berlandieri 163  and  164 

Riparia  with  bronzed  shoots 108 

Riparia  of  Beaupre" 109 

Riparia  de  las  Sorres 109 

Riparia  de  las  Sorres,  selected 109 

Riparia  of  Colorado 168 

Riparia  due  de  Palban 109 

Riparia  Fabre 109 

Riparias  Glabrous 107 

Riparia  de  Touraine 109 

Riparia  G  loire .^ 109 

Riparia  G'oire  de  Montpellier 109 

Riparia  Gloire  de  Touraine 109 

Riparia  Gr  and  Glabre 110 

Riparia  Martin  des  Failures 109 

Riparia  Martineau 109 

Riparia  Meissner  No.  6 108 

Riparia  Meissner  No.  12 108 

Riparia  Meissner  No.  13 109  and  110 

Riparia  Michel 109 

Riparia  X  Monticola 167 

Riparia  Portalis : 109 

Riparia  Ramond 170 

Riparia  X  Rupestris 170 

Riparia  X  Rupestris  gigantesque 172 

Riparia  Saporta 109 

Riparia  Scribner 109 

Riparia  Scuppernong 109 

Riparia  of  the  Indian  territory 108 

Riparias  tomentose 106 

Role  of  sand  and  clay 15 

Romnel 193 

Rulande.r 178 

Rupestris  with  leaden  leaves 90 

Rupestrjs  with  violet  shoots 91 

Rupestris  Arkansas  (Jaeger) 85 

Rupestris  of  Cleburne  (Jaeger) 85 

Rupestris  Colineau 86 

Rupestris  of  Fortworth 91 

Rupestris  of  L£zignan 159 

Rupestris  du  Lot 86 

Rupestris  Ecole 91 

Rupestris  Ganzin 88 

Rupestris,  Glabrous 84 

Rupestris  Giraud 90 

Rupestris  X  Unknown  (Couderc) 189 


ALPHABETICAL    INDEX. 


Rupestris  Lacastelle 

Rupestris  Martin 89 

Rupestris  Metallica 90 

Rupestris  Mission 85 

Rupestris  Monticola 86 


Rupestris  No.  50  ( 
Rupestris  No.  62  ( 
Rupestris  No.  64  ( 
Rupestris  No.  65  ( 
Rupestris  No.  66  ( 
Rupestris  No.  68  ( 
Rupestris  No.  75  ( 
Rupestris  X  Petit 


aeger) 92 

seger) 84 

aeger) 92 

aeger) 92 

aeger) 92 

aeger) 92 

aeger) 92 


kmschet  (Couderc) 189 

Rupestris  phenom£ne 86 

Rupestris  phenom^ne  du  Lot 86 

Rupestris  Reich 86 

Rupestris  Richter 86 

Rupestris  X  Riparia 170 

Rupestris  Saint  George 86 

Rupestris  Sijas 86 

Rupestris  Saubens 90 

Rupestris  Taylor 159 

Rupestris  X  Unknown,  No.  1206 189 

Rupestris  Indian  Territory  (Jaeger) 92 

Rupestris  Y  ( Couderc) 85 

Rupestris  a  (Couderc)  85 


S. 

Sack 136 

Saint  Sauveur 183 

Sanford  grape 148 

Scions,  selection  of 244 

Sclerotinia  Fuckeliana 258 

Scuppernong 43 

Secretary 193 

Selection  and  sowing 125 

Senasqua 174 

Severing  the  roots 256 

Silica  (role  of)  15 

Simpsoni 167 

Simpsoni  X  Labrusca 167 

Solonis 153 

Solonis  with  lobed  leaves 154 

Solonis  Feytel 154 

Solonis  Microsperma 152 

Solonis  X  Riparia  (Couderc) 157 

Sowing 125 

Species  of  American  Vines 42 

Spinovitis  Davidi 114 

Stratification 250 

Sulphate  of  Iron 25 

Sulphate  of  Lime 33 


292  AMERICAN  VINES. 

T. 

Page 

Taylor 136 

Taylor  X  Narbonne 142 

Telegraph 48 

Tender  pulp 43 

Tetranychus  tellarius 258 

Thomas 43 

Transparent 136 

Triumph 174 

Triumph  X  Rupestris 174 

U. 

Uhland 136 

Union  of  grafts 210 

Union  Village 48 

V. 

Venango 48 

Vergeness 48 

Vialla 139 

Vinifera  X  ^Estivalis  X  Cinerea 177 

Vinifera  X  Arizonica 191 

Vinifera  X  Berlandieri 184 

Vinifera  X  Californica 175 

Vinifera  X  Candicans 175 

Vinifera  X  Cinerea 176 

Vinifera  X  Cordifolia 184 

Vinifera  X  Labrusca 173 

Vinifera  X  Labrusca  X  ^stivalis 175 

Vinifera  X  Labrusca  X  ^Estivalis  X  Cinerea 177 

Vinifera  X  Labrusca  X  Riparia 192 

Vinifera  X  Labrusca  X  Rupestris 191 

Vinifera  X  Monticola 187 

Vinifera  X  Riparia 191 

Vinifera  X  Rupestris 187 

Vinifera  X  Rupestris  X  Lincecumii 191 

Vinifera  X  Rotundifolia 173 

V.  ^Estivalis 59 

V.  Amurensis  114 

V.  Arizonica 102 

V.  Berlandieri 61 

V.  Bicolor 59 

V.  Bourquiniana 178 

V.  Californica  50 

V.  Candicans 54 

V.  Caribcea 52 

V.  Champini 145 

V.  Cinerea 80 

V.  Coignetise 114 

V.  Cordifolia .76 

V.  Coriacea 52 

V.  Davidi  . .                      114 


ALPHABETICAL   INDEX.  293 

Page 

V.  Doaniana 154 

V.  Foexeana 98 

V.  Girdiana 50 

V.  Labrusca 45 

V.  Lanata 114 

V.  Lincecumii 57 

V.  Linsecomii 57 

V.  Monticola 96 

V.  Munsoniana 45 

V.  Pagnucii 114 

V.  Palmata 107 

V.  Pedicellata 114 

V.  Riparia 104 

V.  Romaneti 114 

V.  Rotundifolia 43 

V.  Rubra . . . ; 113 

V.  Rupestris 82 

V.  Simpson! 167 

V.  Texana 98 

V.  Thumbergi 114 

V.  Vinifera 115 

W. 

Waverley 193 

White  Delaware 175 

White  Herbemont 178 

Wichita 

Woford's  winter  grape 167 

Y. 

Yoakum 177 

York-Madeira  . .  132 


294  AMERICAN  VINES. 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


Page 

PREFACE  TO  THE  AMERICAN  EDITION 5 

TRANSLATOR'S  INTRODUCTION 7 

PART  I.— ADAPTATION. 

INTRODUCTION 11 

II.   INFLUENCE  OF  SOIL : 15 

A.  Soils  slightly  or  non  calcareous 15 

(a)  Role  of  sand  and  clay 15 

(£)  Compactness  (Stiffness) 15 

(c)  Humidity  (Moisture)    16 

(<t)  Fertility 17 

B.  Calcareous  soils — Chlorosis 18 

( a )  Characteristic  symptoms  of  chlorosis 18 

( b )  Cause  of  chlorosis 22 

Chlorosis  and  humidity 22 

Chlorosis  and  iron 23 

Chlorosis  and  iron  salts 24 

Chlorosis,  light  and  heat 28 

Chlorosis  and  climate 29 

Chlorosis  and  carbonate  of  lime 31 

Chlorosis  and  mildew 38 

Chlorosis  and  phylloxera 38 

Chlorosis  and  grafting 88 

Chlorosis  and  ploughing 40 

PART  II.— CEPAGES. 

I.    SPECIES  OF  AMERICAN  VINES 42 

V.   Rotundifolia 43 

(a)  Description 43 

(t>)  Varieties 43 

(c)  Adaptation  and  culture 43 

V.    Munsoniana 45 

V.   Labrusca 45 

;a )  Description 45 

6)  Varieties 47 

c)  Adaptation  and  culture 48 

V.   Californica 50 

(a)  Description 50 

(b}  Varieties    50 

( c\  Adaptation  and  culture 51 

V.   Cariboea    52 

V.   Coriacea . .                            52 


GENERAL  INDEX.  295 

Page 

V.   Candicans 54 

( a )  Description 54 

(b)  Varieties 55 

( c )  Adaptation  and  culture 56 

V.    Lincecumii 57 

(a]  Description 57 

(£)  Varieties 57 

(c)  Adaptation  and  Culture 58 

V.   Bicolor 59 

V.   ^Estivalis  ... . 59 

( a )  Description 59 

\b\  Varieties 60 

(c)  Adaptation  and  culture 60 

V.   Berlandieri 61 

(a]  Description  (General  characters) 61 

(£)   Varieties 61 

Group  No.  1.  Berlandieri  Mazade 64 

Berlandieri  Ress£guier,  No.  1 65 

Berlandieri  Daignere 65 

Berlandieri  Millardet 65 

Group  No.  2.  Berlandieri  Resse'guier,  No.  2 66 

Group  No.  3.  Berlandieri  de  Lafont,  No.  9 66 

Group  No.  4.  Berlandieri  Angeac 67 

Group  No.  5.  Berlandieri  Viala 68 

Group  No.  6.  Berlandieri  Ecole 68 

( c}  Adaptation  and  culture 69 

V.   Cordifolia 76 

(a]  Description 76 

(t>]  Varieties 77 

(r)  Adaptation  and  culture 79 

V.   Cinerea 80 

(a}  Description 80 

(£)  Varieties 80 

( c}  Adaptation  and  culture 81 

V.   Rupestris 82 

( a )  Description 82 

(d)  Varieties 83 

Rupestris  Mission 85 

Rupestris  du  Lot 86 

Rupestris  Ganzin 88 

Rupestris  Martin 89 

Rupestris  Metallica 90 

Rupestris  with  violet  shoots 91 

Rupestris  Ecole 91 

Rupestris  of  Forthworth 91 

( c}  Adaptation  and  culture / 92 

V.   Monticola 96 

(a)  Description 96 

(b]  Varieties.     Adaptation  and  culture 97 

Monticola  Salomon 99 

Monticola  Munson,  No.  1 100 

Monticola  Munson,  No.  2 100 

Monticola  Munson,  No.  3 101 

Monticola  Foexeana 101 

Monticola  Texana  .                                                    101 


296  AMERICAN      VINES. 

Page. 

V.    Arizonica 102 

V.     Riparia 104 

( a )  Description 104 

(b)  Varieties 105 

Riparia  Gloire  de  Montpellier 109 

Riparia  Grand  Glabre 110 

(c)  Adaptation  and  culture 110 

V.    Rubra   113 

II.  ASIATIC  SPECIES 114 

III.  VlTIS  VlNIFERA 115 

IV.  HYBRIDS 117 

A.  Hybridization 117 

(a)  Historical   117 

(&}  Fecundation  of  the  vine 120 

f  £1  Technique  of  hybridization 122 

(d)  Sowing  and  selection 125 

(e )  Crossings  and  combinations 128 

B.  Hybrids  of  American  vines  (Americo- American) 132 

Hybrids  of  V.  Laboisca  and  V.  ^Estivalis 132 

York  Madeira 132 

Hybrids  of  V.  Labrusca,  V.  ^Estivalis  and  V.  Cinerea. . .  134 

Hybrids  of  V.  Labrusca,  V.  Estivalis  and  V.  Rupestris. .  135 
Hybrids  of  V.  Labrusca,  V.  yEstivalis,  V.  Rupestris,  and 

V.   Riparia 135 

Hybrids  of  V.  Labrusca  and  V.  Cordifolia 135 

Hybrids  of  V.  Labrusca  and  V.  Riparia 135 

Taylor 136 

Noah 137 

Elvira 138 

Clinton 138 

Vialla 139 

Franklin 141 

Hybrids  of  V.  Labrusca,  V.  Riparia  and  V.  Rupestris  . . .  141 

Huntingdon 141 

Taylor-Narbonne 142 

Hybrids  of  V.  Californica  and  V.  Arizonica 143 

Hybrids  of  V.  Candicans  and  V.  Berlandieri 143 

Barnes 145 

Berlandieri  X  Candicans  Bouisset 145 

Love-lady 145 

Hybrids  of  V.  Candicans  and  V.  Rupestris 145 

Hybrids  of  V.  Candicans  and  V.  Monticola 147 

Belton 148 

Hybrids  of  V.  Candicans  and  V.  Riparia 149 

Hybrids  of  V.  Candicans  and  V.  Riparia  and  V.  Rupestris  149 

Solonis 153 

Hutchison 154 

Mobeetie    154 

Doaniana 154 

Hybrids  of  V.  Candicans  and  V.  ^Estivalis— of  V.  Candi- 
cans and  V.  Cordifolia— of  V.  Candicans  and  V.  Cinerea  157 
Hybrids  of  V.  Lincecumii  and  V.  ^Estivalis— of  V.  Lince- 
cumii  and  V.   Candicans — of  V.   Lincecumii  and  V. 
Cinerea — of  V.  Lincecumii  and  V.  Cordifolia 157 


GENERAL  INDEX.  297 

Page 

Hybrids  of  V.  Lincecumii  and  V.  Rupestris 158 

Hybrids  of  V.  Bicolor  and  V.  Riparia 158 

Hybrids  of  V.  ^stivalis  and  V.  Cordifolia 158 

Hybrids  of  V.  yEstivalis  and  V.  Cinerea 159 

Hybrids  of  V.  ^Estivalis  and  V.  Rupestris 159 

Rupestris  Taylor 159 

Rupestris  de  L£zignan 159 

Hybrids  of  V.  yEstivalis  and  V.  Riparia 160 

Aze"mar  Hybrid 160 

Hybrids  of  V.  Berlandieri  and  V.  Rupestris 160 

Hybrids  of  V.  Berlandieri  and  V.  Monticola 161 

Hybrids  of  V.  Berlandieri  and  V.  Cordifolia— of  V.  Ber- 
landieri and  V.   Cinerea — of  V.  Berlandieri  and  V. 

Lincecumii 162 

Hybrids  of  V.  Berlandieri  and  V.  Riparia 162 

Berlandieri  X  Riparia  No.  33  Ecole 163 

Berlandieri  X  Riparia  No.  34  Ecole 164 

Hybrids  of  V.  Cordifolia  and  V.  Cinerea 165 

Hybrids  of  V.  Cordifolia  and  V.  Rupestris 166 

Hybrids  of  V.  Cordifolia  and  Riparia 166 

Hybrids  of  V.  Cinerea  and  V.  Coriacea 167 

Hybrids  of  V.  Cinerea  and  V.  Riparia 167 

Hybrids  of  V.  Monticola  and  V.  Rupestris 167 

Hybrids  of  V.  Monticola  and  V.  Riparia 167 

Colorado 168 

Hybrids  of  V.  Cinerea  and  Rupestris 169 

Hybrids  of  V.  Rupestris  and  V.  Riparia 170 

C.   Hybrids  of  V.  Vinifera  ( Franco- American ) 172 

Hybrids  of  V.  Vinifera  and  V.  Rotundifolia 173 

Hybrids  of  V.  Vinifera  and  V.  Labrusca 173 

Hybrids  of  V.  Vinifera  and  V.  California 175 

Hybrids  of  V.  Vinifera  and  V.  Candicans 175 

Hybrids  of  V.  Vinifera,  V.  Labrusca,  and  V.  ^Estivalis. .  175 

Hybrids  of  V.  Vinifera  and  V.  Cinerea 176 

Hybrids  of  V.  Vinifera,  V.  Labrusca,  V.  yEstivalis,  and 

V.  Cinerea 177 

Hybrids  of  V.  Vinifera,  V.  ^Estivalis,  and  V.  Cinerea  ...  177 

Jacquez 180 

Herbemont 181 

Hybrids  of  V.  Vinifera  and  V.  Cordifolia 184 

Hybrids  of  V.  Vinifera  and  V.  Berlandieri 184 

Hybrids  of  V.  Vinifera  and  V.  Monticola 187 

Hybrids  of  V.  Vinifera  and  V.  Rupestris 187 

Aramon  X  Rupestris  Ganzin,  No.  1 189 

Aramon  X  Rupestris  Ganzin,  No.  2 189 

Camay  Couderc,  No.  3103 189 

Mourv£dre  X  Rupestris  Couderc,  No.  1202 189 

Gros  Colman  X  Rupestris,  No.  160  ( M.  and  G. ) 190 

Cabernet  X  Rupestris,  No.  33  ( M.  and  G. ) 190 

Alicante  Bouschet  X  Rupestris,  No.  139  (M.  and  G.).  190 

Alicante  Bouschet  X  Rupestris,  No.  136  (Ecole) 190 

Franc's  Hybrid,  etc 190 

Hybrid  of  V.  Vinifera,  V.  Labrusca  and  V.  Rupestris.. . .  191 


298  AMERICAN    VINES. 

Page 

Hybrids  of  V.  Vinifera,  V.  Rupestris  and  V.  Lincecumii.  191 

Seibel's  Hybrids 191 

Hybrids  of  V.  Vinifera  and  V.  Arizonica 191 

Hybrids  of  V.  Vinifera  and  V.  Riparia 191 

Hybrids  of  V.  Vinifera,  V.  Labrusca  and  V.  Riparia 192 

Othello 193 

Canada,  Brandt,  Secretary,  Cornucopia,  Autuchon 195 

PART  III.— CULTURE. 

CULTURE 197 

(a)  Conclusions  (Choice  ol  varieties) 197 

I.    Humidity , 200 

II.    Compactness..... 200 

III.  Aridity 200 

IV.  Predominance  of  silica 200 

V.    Amount  of  limestone  in  the  soil 200 

VI.    The  vigor  of  the  graft 201 

VII.    The  affinity...: 201 

VIII.    Fertility  of  graft 202 

IX.    Earliness  of  ripening  fruit 202 

6)  Deep  cultivation . 202 

c]  Manuring  and  planting 203 

d]  Plowing 205 


e)  Distance  between  vines 205 

(/)  Layering 206 

(£")  Quality  of  wines  from  grafted  vines 207 

PART  IV.— GRAFTING  AND  NURSERIES. 

I. — ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  GRAFT 209 

# )  Knitting  tissues 210 

b)  Effects  of  grafting.— "Affinity" 214 

II.— SYSTEMS  OF  GRAFTING 225 

a)  Whip-tongue  graft 226 

b)  Ordinary  cleft-graft 228 

(c]  Double  cleft-graft 230 

Id)  English  cleft-graft 230 

(e)  Binding  and  waxing 234 

III. — GRAFTING  ON  GROWING  STOCKS  AND  BENCH  GRAFTING.  239 

A.    Grafting  on  growing  stocks 239 

(a]  Time  of  grafting 239 

(b )  Operation  of  grafting 240 

(€)  Severing  the  roots 241 

d}  Care  to  be  given  to  grafts 243 

e)  Care  to  be  given  to  scions 244 

/)  Autumn  grafts 244 

Cadillac  graft 245 

Gaillard  graft 248 


GENERAL  INDEX.  299 

Page 

B.  Bench  grafting 248 

(a)  Grafting  on  cuttings 248 

3)  Stratification  and  callusing  250 

c)  Preservation  of  stocks  and  scions 251 

IV.— NURSERIES 252 

a]  Selection  and  preparation  of  soil 252 

Plantation 252 

1*    Cultural  care 255 

( d]  Removal  of  roots  from  the  scion 256 

(e)  Lifting  grafted  cuttings 256 

(/)  Diseases 257 

White  grubs 257 

Tetranychus  tellarius 258 

Coniothyrium  diplodiella 258 

Pourridi^ 258 

Mildew 258 

Fibrillaria 258 

Sclerotinia  Fuckeliana 258 

V.— HERBACEOUS  GRAFTING 259 

APPENDIX ' 263 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 266 

GLOSSARY  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  SCIENTIFIC   TERMS  USED  IN  THE 

PRESENT  VOLUME 272 

TABLE  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 279 

ALPHABETICAL  INDEX  .  282 


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